Mycoplasma pneumoniae – modern data on the structure, molecular biology and epidemiology of the pathogen | CMAC

Mycoplasma pneumoniae – modern data on the structure, molecular biology and epidemiology of the pathogen

Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2023; 25(4):332-349

​ Edelstein I.A.
10.36488/cmac.2023.4.332-349
Mycoplasma pneumoniae genome epidemiology pneumonia macrolide resistance
Section
Diseases and Pathogens
Type
Review
Publication
Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2023; 25(4):332-349

Abstract

Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a common etiologic agent of respiratory tract infections and communityacquired pneumonia (CAP) in children and adults. Recently, much new data on this pathogen, its molecular biology, cytoadherence and epidemiology have been accumulated. This review describes in detail the features of the microorganism and the pathogenesis of the diseases caused, clinical manifestations, provides data on the epidemiology of the incidence of respiratory mycoplasmosis and CAP caused by this microorganism in the world, discusses the issues of asymptomatic carriage, considers the problems of laboratory diagnosis, antibiotic therapy and antibiotic resistance of the pathogen.

Inna A. Edelstein

Institute of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Smolensk, Russia

  • 1. Saraya T. The history of Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:364. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00364
  • 2. Gupta R.S., Oren A. Necessity and rationale for the proposed name changes in the classification of Mollicutes species. Reply to: ‘Recommended rejection of the names Malacoplasma gen. nov., Mesomycoplasma gen. nov., Metamycoplasma gen. nov., Metamycoplasmataceae fam. nov. [Gupta, Sawnani, Adeolu, Alnajar and Oren 2018] and all proposed species comb. nov. placed therein', by Balish M., et al. (Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, 2019;69:3650-3653). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2020;70(2):1431-1438. DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.003869
  • 3. Gupta R.S., Sawnani S., Adeolu M., Alnajar S., Oren A. Phylogenetic framework for the phylum Tenericutes based on genome sequence data: proposal for the creation of a new order Mycoplasmoidales ord. nov., containing two new families Mycoplasmoidaceae fam. nov. and Metamycoplasmataceae fam. nov. harbouring Eperythrozoon, Ureaplasma and five novel genera. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 2018;111(9):1583-1630. DOI: 10.1007/s10482-018-1047-3
  • 4. Hu J., Ye Y., Chen X., Xiong L., Xie W., Liu P. Insight into the pathogenic mechanism of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Curr Microbiol. 2023;80(1):14. DOI: 10.1007/s00284-022-03103-0
  • 5. Charon N.W. Mycoplasma takes a walk. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2005;102(39):13713-13714. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0506508102
  • 6. Atkinson T.P., Balish M.F., Waites K.B. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathogenesis and laboratory detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2008;32(6):956-973. DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2008.00129.x
  • 7. Himmelreich R., Hilbert H., Plagens H., Pirkl E., Li B.C., Herrmann R. Complete sequence analysis of the genome of the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Nucleic Acids Res. 1996;24(22):4420-4449. DOI: 10.1093/nar/24.22.4420
  • 8. Rudd K.E. EcoGene: a genome sequence database for Escherichia coli K-12. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000;28(1):60-64. DOI: 10.1093/nar/28.1.60
  • 9. Dandekar T., Snel B., Schmidt S., Lathe W., Suyama M., Huynen M., Bork P. Comparative genome analysis of the Mollicutes. In: Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity of Mycoplasmas. Springer US; 2002:255-278. DOI: 10.1007/0-306-47606-1_11
  • 10. Pollack J.D., Myers M.A., Dandekar T., Herrmann R. Suspected utility of enzymes with multiple activities in the small genome Mycoplasma species: the replacement of the missing “household” nucleoside diphosphate kinase gene and activity by glycolytic kinases. Omi A J Integr Biol. 2002;6(3):247-258. DOI: 10.1089/15362310260256909
  • 11. Pereyre S., Goret J., Bébéar C. Mycoplasma pneumoniae: current knowledge on macrolide resistance and treatment. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:974. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00974
  • 12. Wernegreen J.J. For better or worse: genomic consequences of intracellular mutualism and parasitism. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2005;15(6):572-583. DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2005.09.013
  • 13. Talkington D.F., Schwartz S.B., Besser R.E., Waites K.B. Emerging from obscurity: understanding pulmonary and extrapulmonary syndromes, pathogenesis, and epidemiology of human Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. In: Emerging Infections 5. American Society of Microbiology. 2001. DOI: 10.1128/9781555816988.ch4
  • 14. Rottem S. Interaction of mycoplasmas with host cells. Physiol Rev. 2003;83(2):417-432. DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00030.2002
  • 15. Balish M.F. Subcellular structures of mycoplasmas. Front Biosci. 2006;11(1):2017. DOI: 10.2741/1943
  • 16. Balish M.F., Krause D.C. Mycoplasmas: a distinct cytoskeleton for wall-less bacteria. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol. 2006;11(3-5):244-255. DOI: 10.1159/000094058
  • 17. Henderson G.P., Jensen G.J. Three-dimensional structure of Mycoplasma pneumoniae’s attachment organelle and a model for its role in gliding motility. Mol Microbiol. 2006;60(2):376-385. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05113.x
  • 18. Seybert A., Herrmann R., Frangakis A.S. Structural analysis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae by cryo-electron tomography. J Struct Biol. 2006;156(2):342-354. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2006.04.010
  • 19. Nakane D., Adan-Kubo J., Kenri T., Miyata M. Isolation and characterization of P1 adhesin, a leg protein of the gliding bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Bacteriol. 2011;193(3):715-722. DOI: 10.1128/JB.00796-10
  • 20. Layh-Schmitt G., Herrmann R. Localization and biochemical characterization of the ORF6 gene product of the Mycoplasma pneumoniae P1 operon. Infect Immun. 1992;60(7):2906-2913. DOI: 10.1128/iai.60.7.2906-2913.1992
  • 21. Nakane D., Kenri T., Matsuo L., Miyata M. Systematic structural analyses of attachment organelle in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. PLoS Pathog. 2015;11(12):e1005299. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005299
  • 22. Boonmee A., Ruppert T., Herrmann R. The gene mpn310 (hmw2) from Mycoplasma pneumoniae encodes two proteins, HMW2 and HMW2-s, which differ in size but use the same reading frame. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2008;290(2):174-181. DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2008.01422.x
  • 23. Hasselbring B.M., Jordan J.L., Krause D.C. Mutant analysis reveals a specific requirement for protein P30 in Mycoplasma pneumoniae gliding motility. J Bacteriol. 2005;187(18):6281-6289. DOI: 10.1128/JB.187.18.6281-6289.2005
  • 24. Gray G.C., Duffy L.B., Paver R.J., Putnam S.D., Reynolds R.J., Cassell G.H. Mycoplasma pneumoniae: a frequent cause of pneumonia among U.S. Marines in southern California. Mil Med. 1997;162(8):524-526. PMID: 9271902.
  • 25. Jordan J.L., Chang H.Y., Balish M.F., Holt L.S., Bose S.R., Hasselbring B.M., et al. Protein P200 is dispensable for Mycoplasma pneumoniae hemadsorption but not gliding motility or colonization of differentiated bronchial epithelium. Infect Immun. 2007;75(1):518-522. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.01344-06
  • 26. Hegermann J., Herrmann R., Mayer F. Cytoskeletal elements in the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Naturwissenschaften. 2002;89(10):453-458. DOI: 10.1007/s00114-002-0359-2
  • 27. Hatchel J.M., Balish M.F. Attachment organelle ultrastructure correlates with phylogeny, not gliding motility properties, in Mycoplasma pneumoniae relatives. Microbiology. 2008;154(1):286-295. DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2007/012765-0
  • 28. Seto S., Kenri T., Tomiyama T., Miyata M. Involvement of P1 adhesin in gliding motility of Mycoplasma pneumoniae as revealed by the inhibitory effects of antibody under optimized gliding conditions. J Bacteriol. 2005;187(5):1875-1877. DOI: 10.1128/JB.187.5.1875-1877.2005
  • 29. Vilei E.M., Frey J. Genetic and biochemical characterization of glycerol uptake in Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC: its impact on H2O2 production and virulence. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2001;8(1):85-92. DOI: 10.1128/CDLI.8.1.85-92.2001
  • 30. Pilo P., Vilei E.M., Peterhans E., Bonvin-Klotz L., Stoffel M.H., Dobbelaere D., Frey J. A metabolic enzyme as a primary virulence factor of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony. J Bacteriol. 2005;187(19):6824-6831. DOI: 10.1128/JB.187.19.6824-6831.2005
  • 31. Low I.E. Effect of medium on H(2)O(2) levels and peroxidase-like activity by Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 1971;3(1):80-86. DOI: 10.1128/iai.3.1.80-86.1971
  • 32. Galinier A., Kravanja M., Engelmann R., Hengstenberg W., Kilhoffer M.C., Deutscher J., Haiech J. New protein kinase and protein phosphatase families mediate signal transduction in bacterial catabolite repression. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1998;95(4):1823-1828. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.95.4.1823
  • 33. Merzbacher M., Detsch C., Hillen W., Stulke J. Mycoplasma pneumoniae HPr kinase/phosphorylase. Assigning functional roles to the P-loop and the HPr kinase/phosphorylase signature sequence motif. Eur J Biochem. 2004;271(2):367-374. DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1033.2003.03935.x
  • 34. Almagor M., Kahane I., Yatziv S. Role of superoxide anion in host cell injury induced by Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A study in normal and trisomy 21 cells. J Clin Invest. 1984;73(3):842-847. DOI: 10.1172/JCI111279
  • 35. Tryon V.V, Baseman J.B. The acquisition of human lactoferrin by Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Microb Pathog. 1987;3(6):437-443. DOI: 10.1016/0882-4010(87)90013-1
  • 36. Yang J., Hooper W.C., Phillips D.J., Talkington D.F. Regulation of proinflammatory cytokines in human lung epithelial cells infected with Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 2002;70(7):3649-3655. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.70.7.3649-3655.2002
  • 37. Collier A.M., Baseman J.B. Organ culture techniques with mycoplasmas. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1973;225(1):277-289. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1973.tb45656.x
  • 38. Waites K.B., Simecka J.W., Talkington D.F., Atkinson T.P. Pathogenesis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections:adaptive immunity, innate immunity, cell biology, and virulence factors. In: Community-Acquired Pneumonia. Birkhäuser Basel. 2007. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7643-7563-8_9
  • 39. Kannan T.R., Baseman J.B. ADP-ribosylating and vacuolating cytotoxin of Mycoplasma pneumoniae represents unique virulence determinant among bacterial pathogens. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2006;103(17):6724-6729. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0510644103
  • 40. Becker A., Kannan T.R., Taylor A.B., Pakhomova O.N., Zhang Y., Somarajan S.R., et al. Structure of CARDS toxin, a unique ADP-ribosylating and vacuolating cytotoxin from Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2015;112(16):5165-5170. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1420308112
  • 41. Hardy R.D., Coalson J.J., Peters J., Chaparro A., Techasaensiri C., Cantwell A.M., et al. Analysis of pulmonary inflammation and function in the mouse and baboon after exposure to Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin. PLoS One. 2009;4(10):e7562. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007562
  • 42. Medina J.L., Coalson J.J., Brooks E.G., Le Saux C.J., Winter V.T., Chaparro A., et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin exacerbates ovalbumin-induced asthma-like inflammation in BALB/c mice. PLoS One. 2014;9(7):e102613. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102613
  • 43. Techasaensiri C., Tagliabue C., Cagle M., Iranpour P., Katz K., Kannan T.R., et al. Variation in colonization, ADP-ribosylating and vacuolating cytotoxin, and pulmonary disease severity among Mycoplasma pneumoniae strains. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;182(6):797-804. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201001-0080OC
  • 44. Johnson C., Kannan T.R., Baseman J.B. Cellular vacuoles induced by Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin originate from Rab9-associated compartments. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e22877. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022877
  • 45. Bose S., Segovia J. A., Somarajan S. R., Chang T. H., Kannan T. R., Baseman J.B. ADP-ribosylation of NLRP3 by Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin regulates inflammasome activity. MBio. 2014;5(6):e02186-14. DOI: 10.1128/mBio.02186-14
  • 46. Im H., Ammit A.J. The NLRP3 inflammasome: role in airway inflammation. Clin Exp Allergy. 2014;44(2):160-172. DOI: 10.1111/cea.12206
  • 47. Kannan T.R., Musatovova O., Balasubramanian S., Cagle M., Jordan J.L., Krunkosky T.M., et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae community acquired respiratory distress syndrome toxin expression reveals growth phase and infection-dependent regulation. Mol Microbiol. 2010;76(5):1127-1141. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07092.x
  • 48. Somarajan S. R., Al-Asadi F., Ramasamy K., Pandranki L., Baseman J.B., Kannan T.R. Annexin A2 mediates Mycoplasma pneumoniae community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome toxin binding to eukaryotic cells. MBio. 2014;5(4). DOI: 10.1128/mBio.01497-14
  • 49. Waites K.B., Talkington D.F. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and its role as a human pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(4):697-728. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.17.4.697-728.2004
  • 50. Wilson M.H., Collier A.M. Ultrastructural study of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in organ culture. J Bacteriol. 1976;125(1):332-339. DOI: 10.1128/jb.125.1.332-339.1976
  • 51. Polkowska A., Harjunpää A., Toikkanen S., Lappalainen M., Vuento R., Vuorinen T., et al. Increased incidence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Finland, 2010-2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(5):20072. DOI: 10.2807/ese.17.05.20072-en
  • 52. Bébéar C., Pereyre S., Peuchant O. Mycoplasma pneumoniae: susceptibility and resistance to antibiotics. Future Microbiol. 2011;6(4):423-431. DOI: 10.2217/fmb.11.18
  • 53. Higgins R.R., Lombos E., Tang P., Rohoman K., Maki A., Brown S., et al. Verification of the ProPneumo-1 assay for the simultaneous detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydophila pneumoniae in clinical respiratory specimens. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2009;8(1):10. DOI: 10.1186/1476-0711-8-10
  • 54. Jacobs E., Ehrhardt I., Dumke R. New insights in the outbreak pattern of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Int J Med Microbiol. 2015;305(7):705-708. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2015.08.021
  • 55. Loens K., Goossens H., Ieven M. Acute respiratory infection due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae: current status of diagnostic methods. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010;29(9):1055-1069. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-010-0975-2
  • 56. Kannan T.R., Hardy R.D., Coalson J.J., Cavuoti D.C., Siegel J.D., Cagle M., et al. Fatal outcomes in family transmission of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(2):225-231. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cir769
  • 57. Dorigo‐Zetsma J.W., Wilbrink B., van der Nat H., Bartelds A.I. M., Heijnen M.A., Dankert J. Results of molecular detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae among patients with acute respiratory infection and in their household contacts reveals children as human reservoirs. J Infect Dis. 2001;183(4):675-678. DOI: 10.1086/318529
  • 58. Ferwerda A., Moll H.A., de Groot R. Respiratory tract infections by Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children: a review of diagnostic and therapeutic measures. Eur J Pediatr. 2001;160(8):483-491. DOI: 10.1007/s004310100775
  • 59. Muldoon R. L., Raucci J., Kowalski J., Rajashekaraiah K. An outbreak of Mycoplasma pneumoniae respiratory illness in a semi-closed religious commune. Ann Emerg Med. 1982;11(11):613-615. DOI: 10.1016/S0196-0644(82)80203-5
  • 60. Leibowitz Z., Schvartzman P., Epstein L., Lis I., Naot Y. An outbreak of Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in two kibbutzim: a clinical and epidemiologic study. Isr J Med Sci. 1988;24(2):88-92. PMID: 3356539.
  • 61. Feikin D. R., Moroney J. F., Talkington D. F., Thacker W.L., Code J.E., Schwartz L.A., et al. An outbreak of acute respiratory disease caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae and adenovirus at a federal service training academy: new implications from an old scenario. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29(6):1545-1550. DOI: 10.1086/313500
  • 62. Gray G.C., Callahan J.D., Hawksworth A.W., Fisher C.A., Gaydos J.C. Respiratory diseases among U.S. military personnel: countering emerging threats. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(3):379-387. DOI: 10.3201/eid0503.990308
  • 63. Mogabgab W.J. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and adenovirus respiratory illnesses in military and university personnel, 1959-1966. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1968;97(3):345-358. DOI: 10.1164/arrd.1968.97.3.345
  • 64. Edwards E.A., Crawford Y.E., Pierce W.E., Peckinpaugh R.O. A longitudinal study of Mycoplasma pneumoniae: infections in navy recruits by isolation and seroepidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1976;104(5):556-562. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112330
  • 65. Kleemola M., Jokinen C. Outbreak of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection among hospital personnel studied by a nucleic acid hybridization test. J Hosp Infect. 1992;21(3):213-221. DOI: 10.1016/0195-6701(92)90078-Z
  • 66. Fischman R.A., Marschall K.E., Kislak J.W., Greenbaum D.M. Adult respiratory distress syndrome caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Chest. 1978;74(4):471. DOI: 10.1378/chest.74.4.471
  • 67. Gray G.C., Mitchell B.S., Tueller J.E., Cross E.R., Amundson D.E. Pneumonia hospitalizations in the US navy and marine corps: rates and risk factors for 6,522 admissions, 1981-1991. Am J Epidemiol. 1994;139(8):793-802. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117076
  • 68. Alexander E.R., Foy H.M., Kenny G.E., Kronmal R.A., McMahan R., Clarke E.R., et al. Pneumonia due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae. N Engl J Med. 1966;275(3):131-136. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM196607212750303
  • 69. Wubbel L., Muniz L., Ahmed A., Trujillo M., Carubelli C., McCoig C., et al. Etiology and treatment of communityacquired pneumonia in ambulatory children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18(2):98-104. DOI: 10.1097/00006454-199902000-00004
  • 70. Luby J.P. Pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Clin Chest Med. 1991;12(2):237-244. PMID: 1906790.
  • 71. Harris J.A.S., Kolokathis A., Campbell M., Cassell G.H., Hammerschlag M. R. Safety and efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(10):865-871. DOI: 10.1097/00006454-199810000-00004
  • 72. Heiskanen-Kosma T., Korppi M., Jokinen C., Kurki S., Heiskanen L., Juvonen H., et al. Etiology of childhood pneumonia: serologic results of a prospective, populationbased study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(11):986-991. DOI: 10.1097/00006454-199811000-00004
  • 73. Foy H.M. Infections caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae and possible carrier state in different populations of patients. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(Suppl. 1):S37-S46. DOI: 10.1093/clinids/17.Supplement_1.S37
  • 74. Block S., Hedrick J., Hammersclag M.R., Cassell G.H., Craft J.C. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in pediatric community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995;14(6):471-477. DOI: 10.1097/00006454-199506000-00002
  • 75. Spuesens E.B.M., Oduber M., Hoogenboezem T., Sluijter M., Hartwig N.G., van Rossum A.M.C., Vink C. Sequence variations in RepMP2/3 and RepMP4 elements reveal intragenomic homologous DNA recombination events in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Microbiology. 2009;155(7):2182-2196. DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.028506-0
  • 76. Dumke R., Catrein I., Herrmann R., Jacobs E. Preference, adaptation and survival of Mycoplasma pneumoniae subtypes in an animal model. Int J Med Microbiol. 2004;294(2-3):149-155. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2004.06.020
  • 77. Zhao F., Liu L., Tao X., He L., Meng F., Zhang J. CultureIndependent Detection and genotyping of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in clinical specimens from Beijing, China. PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e0141702. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141702
  • 78. Kenri T., Okazaki N., Yamazaki T., Narita M., Izumikawa K., Matsuoka M., et al. Genotyping analysis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae clinical strains in Japan between 1995 and 2005: type shift phenomenon of M. pneumoniae clinical strains. J Med Microbiol. 2008;57(4):469-475. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.47634-0
  • 79. Schwartz S.B., Thurman K.A., Mitchell S.L., Wolff B.J., Winchell J.M. Genotyping of Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates using real-time PCR and high-resolution melt analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15(8):756-762. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02814.x
  • 80. Martinez M.A., Ruiz M., Zunino E., Luchsinger V., Aguirre R., Avendano L. F. Identification of P1 types and variants of Mycoplasma pneumoniae during an epidemic in Chile. J Med Microbiol. 2010;59(8):925-929. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.018333-0
  • 81. Nilsson A.C., Björkman P., Welinder-Olsson C., Widell A., Persson K. Clinical severity of Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) infection is associated with bacterial load in oropharyngeal secretions but not with MP genotype. BMC Infect Dis. 2010;10(1):39. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-10-39
  • 82. Diaz M.H., Benitez A.J., Winchell J.M. Investigations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in the United States: trends in molecular typing and macrolide resistance from 2006 to 2013. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53(1):124-130. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02597-14
  • 83. Uldum S.A., Bangsborg J.M., Gahrn-Hansen B., Ljung R., Mølvadgaard M., Føns Petersen R., et al. Epidemic of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Denmark, 2010 and 2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(5):20073. DOI: 10.2807/ese.17.05.20073-en
  • 84. Chalker V.J., Stocki T., Mentasti M., Fleming D., Sadler C., Ellis J., et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in primary care investigated by real-time PCR in England and Wales. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2011;30(7):915-921. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-011-1176-3
  • 85. Linde A., Ternhag A., Torner A., Claesson B. Antibiotic prescriptions and laboratory-confirmed cases of Mycoplasma pneumoniae during the epidemic in Sweden in 2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(6):20082. PMID: 22340974.
  • 86. Blystad H., Ånestad G., Vestrheim D.F., Madsen S., Rønning K. Increased incidence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Norway 2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(5). DOI: 10.2807/ese.17.05.20074-en
  • 87. Okada T., Morozumi M., Tajima T., Hasegawa M., Sakata H., Ohnari S., et al. Rapid effectiveness of minocycline or doxycycline against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in a 2011 outbreak among japanese children. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(12):1642-1649. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cis784
  • 88. Qu J., Yu X., Liu Y., Yin Y., Gu L., Cao B., Wang C. Specific multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis genotypes of Mycoplasma pneumoniae are associated with diseases severity and macrolide susceptibility. PLoS One. 2013;8(12):e82174. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082174
  • 89. Kim E.K., Youn Y.S., Rhim J.W., Shin M.S., Kang J.H., Lee K.Y. Epidemiological comparison of three Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia epidemics in a single hospital over 10 years. Korean J Pediatr. 2015;58(5):172. DOI: 10.3345/kjp.2015.58.5.172
  • 90. Pereyre S., Charron A., Hidalgo-Grass C., Touati A., Moses A.E., Nir-Paz R., Bébéar C. The spread of Mycoplasma pneumoniae is polyclonal in both an endemic setting in France and in an epidemic setting in Israel. PLoS One. 2012;7(6):e38585. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038585
  • 91. Nir-Paz R., Abutbul A., Moses A.E., Block C., HidalgoGrass C. Ongoing epidemic of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Jerusalem, Israel, 2010 to 2012. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(8):20095. PMID: 22401504.
  • 92. Edelstein I., Rachina S., Touati A., Kozlov R., Henin N., Bébéar C., Pereyre S. Mycoplasma pneumoniae monoclonal P1 type 2c outbreak, Russia, 2013. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(2):348-350. DOI: 10.3201/eid2202.151349
  • 93. Spuesens E.B.M, Fraaij P.L.A., Visser E.G., Hoogenboezem T., Hop W.C., van Adrichem L.N., et al. Carriage of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the upper respiratory tract of symptomatic and asymptomatic children: an observational study. PLoS Med. 2013;10(5):e1001444. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001444
  • 94. Wood P.R., Hill V.L., Burks M.L., Peters J.I., Singh H., Kannan T.R., et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with acute and refractory asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013;110(5):328-334.e1. DOI: 10.1016/j.anai.2013.01.022
  • 95. Centor R.M., Atkinson T.P., Ratliff A.E., Xiao L., Crabb D.M., Estrada C.A., et al. The clinical presentation of Fusobacterium-positive and streptococcal-positive pharyngitis in a university health clinic. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162(4):241. DOI: 10.7326/M14-1305
  • 96. Vervloet L.A., Marguet C., Camargos P.A.M. Infection by Mycoplasma pneumoniae and its importance as an etiological agent in childhood community-acquired pneumonias. Brazilian J Infect Dis. 2007;11(5):507-514. DOI: 10.1590/S1413-86702007000500012
  • 97. Koletsky R.J., Weinstein A.J. Fulminant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Report of a fatal case, and a review of the literature. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980;122(3):491-496. DOI: 10.1164/arrd.1980.122.3.491
  • 98. Chan E.D., Welsh C.H. Fulminant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia. West J Med. 1995;162(2):133-142. PMID: 7725685.
  • 99. Park S.J., Pai K.S., Kim A.R., Lee J.H., Shin J.I., Lee S.Y. Fulminant and fatal multiple organ failure in a 12-yearold boy with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2012;4(1):55-57. DOI: 10.4168/aair.2012.4.1.55
  • 100. Izumikawa K., Izumikawa K., Takazono T., Kosai K., Morinaga Y., Nakamura S., et al. Clinical features, risk factors and treatment of fulminant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia: a review of the Japanese literature. J Infect Chemother. 2014;20(3):181-185. DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2013.09.009
  • 101. Waites K.B., Xiao L., Liu Y., Balish M.F., Atkinson T.P. Mycoplasma pneumoniae from the respiratory tract and beyond. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2017;30(3):747-809. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00114-16
  • 102. Miyashita N., Akaike H., Teranishi H., Nakano T., Ouchi K., Okimoto N. Chest computed tomography for the diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Respirology. 2014;19(1):144-145. DOI: 10.1111/resp.12218
  • 103. Leonardi S., Pavone P., Rotolo N., La Rosa M. Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection a causal or casual relationship? Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24(9):843-845. DOI: 10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56
  • 104. Guleria R., Nisar N., Chawla T.C., Biswas N.R. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and central nervous system complications: a review. J Lab Clin Med. 2005;146(2):55-63. DOI: 10.1016/j.lab.2005.04.006
  • 105. Meyer Sauteur P.M., Moeller A., Relly C., Berger C., Plecko B., Nadal D.; Swiss Pediatric Surveillance Unit (SPSU). Swiss national prospective surveillance of paediatric Mycoplasma pneumoniae-associated encephalitis. Swiss Med Wkly. 2016 Jan 11:146:w14222. DOI: 10.4414/smw.2016.14222
  • 106. Kammer J., Ziesing S., Davila L., Bültmann E., Illsinger S., Das A.M., et al. Neurological manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in hospitalized children and their long-term follow-up. Neuropediatrics. 2016;47(05):308-317. DOI: 10.1055/s-0036-1584325
  • 107. Narita M. Pathogenesis of neurologic manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Pediatr Neurol. 2009;41(3):159-166. DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2009.04.012
  • 108. Tsiodras S., Kelesidis I., Kelesidis T., Stamboulis E., Giamarellou H. Central nervous system manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections. J Infect. 2005; 51(5):343-354. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2005.07.005
  • 109. Sánchez-Vargas F.M., Gómez-Duarte O.G. Mycoplasma pneumoniae – an emerging extra-pulmonary pathogen. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008;14(2):105-115. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01834.x
  • 110. Tay Y.K., Huff J.C., Weston W.L. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection is associated with Stevens-Johnson syndrome, not erythema multiforme (von Hebra). J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996;35(5):757-760. DOI: 10.1016/S0190-9622(96)90732-X
  • 111. Latsch K., Girschick H.J., Abele-Horn M. Stevens Johnson syndrome without skin lesions. J Med Microbiol. 2007;56(12):1696-1699. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.47318-0
  • 112. Narita M. Pathogenesis of extrapulmonary manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection with special reference to pneumonia. J Infect Chemother. 2010;16(3):162-169. DOI: 10.1007/s10156-010-0044-X
  • 113. Oishi T., Narita M., Ohya H., Yamanaka T., Aizawa Y., Matsuo M., et al. Rhabdomyolysis associated with antimicrobial drug-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(5):849-851. DOI: 10.3201/eid1805.111149
  • 114. Weng W.C., Peng S.S.F., Wang S.B., Chou Y.T., Lee W.T. Mycoplasma pneumoniae-associated transverse myelitis and rhabdomyolysis. Pediatr Neurol. 2009;40(2):128-130. DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.10.009
  • 115. Jayantha U. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka J Child Heal. 2008;36(2):43. DOI: 10.4038/sljch.v36i2.48
  • 116. Nisar N., Guleria R., Kumar S., Chand Chawla T., Ranjan Biswas N. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and its role in asthma. Postgrad Med J. 2007;83(976):100-104. DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.2006.049023
  • 117. Kraft M., Cassell G.H., Pak J., Martin R.J. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in asthma. Chest. 2002;121(6):1782-1788. DOI: 10.1378/chest.121.6.1782
  • 118. Martin R.J., Kraft M., Chu H.W., Berns E.A., Cassell G.H. A link between chronic asthma and chronic infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(4):595-601. DOI: 10.1067/mai.2001.113563
  • 119. Biscardi S., Lorrot M., Marc E., Moulin F., Boutonnat-Faucher B., Heilbronner C., et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and asthma in children. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(10):1341-1346. DOI: 10.1086/392498
  • 120. Lieberman D., Lieberman D., Printz S., Ben-Yaakov M., Lazarovich Z., Ohana B., et al. Atypical pathogen infection in adults with acute exacerbation of bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167(3):406-410. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200209-996OC
  • 121. Nir-Paz R., Michael-Gayego A., Ron M., Block C. Evaluation of eight commercial tests for Mycoplasma pneumoniae antibodies in the absence of acute infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2006;12(7):685-688. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01469.x
  • 122. Atkinson T.P., Waites K.B. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in childhood. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2014;33(1):92-94. DOI: 10.1097/INF.0000000000000171
  • 123. Thacker W.L., Talkington D.F. Analysis of complement fixation and commercial enzyme immunoassays for detection of antibodies to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in human serum. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2000;7(5):778-780. DOI: 10.1128/CDLI.7.5.778-780.2000
  • 124. Waites K.B., Xiao L., Paralanov V., Viscardi R.M., Glass J.I. Molecular methods for the detection of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma infections in humans: a paper from the 2011 William Beaumont Hospital Symposium on molecular pathology. J Mol Diagn. 2012;14(5):437-450. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmoldx.2012.06.001
  • 125. Diaz M.H., Winchell J.M. The evolution of advanced molecular diagnostics for the detection and characterization of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:232. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00232
  • 126. Ieven M., Loens K. Should serology be abolished in favor of PCR for the diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections? Curr Pediatr Rev. 2013;9(4):304-313. DOI: 10.2174/157339630904131223110501
  • 127. Loens K., Ieven M. Mycoplasma pneumoniae: current knowledge on nucleic acid amplification techniques and serological diagnostics. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:448. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00448
  • 128. Saito R. Development and evaluation of a loopmediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Med Microbiol. 2005;54(11):1037-1041. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.46071-0
  • 129. Pitcher D. Real-time detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory samples with an internal processing control. J Med Microbiol. 2006;55(2):149-155. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.46281-0
  • 130. Loens K., Ursi D., Ieven M., van Aarle P., Sillekens P., Oudshoorn P., Goossens H. Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in spiked clinical samples by nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. J Clin Microbiol. 2002; 40(4):1339-1345. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.40.4.1339-1345.2002
  • 131. Loens K., Ursi D., Goossens H., Ieven M. Molecular Diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae respiratory tract infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(11):4915-4923. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.41.11.4915-4923.2003
  • 132. Notomi T. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000;28(12):e63. DOI: 10.1093/nar/28.12.e63
  • 133. Aizawa Y., Oishi T., Tsukano S., Taguchi T., Saitoh A. Clinical utility of loop-mediated isothermal amplification for rapid diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children. J Med Microbiol. 2014;63(Pt. 2):248-251. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.068288-0
  • 134. Ishiguro N., Koseki N., Kaiho M., Kikuta H., Togashi T., Watanabe T., et al. Sensitivity and specificity of a loopmediated isothermal amplification assay for the detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae from nasopharyngeal swab samples compared with those of real-time PCR. Clin Lab. 2015;61(5-6):603-606. DOI: 10.7754/clin.lab.2014.141016
  • 135. Petrone B.L., Wolff B.J., DeLaney A.A., Diaz M.H., Winchell J.M. Isothermal detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae directly from respiratory clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53(9):2970-2976. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.01431-15
  • 136. Kakuya F., Kinebuchi T., Fujiyasu H., Tanaka R., Kano H. Genetic point-of-care diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection using LAMP assay. Pediatr Int. 2014;56(4):547-552. DOI: 10.1111/ped.12327
  • 137. Gotoh K., Nishimura N., Ohshima Y., Arakawa Y., Hosono H., Yamamoto Y., et al. Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay and serology in pediatric community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect Chemother. 2012;18(5):662-667. DOI: 10.1007/s10156-012-0388-5
  • 138. Ratliff A.E., Duffy L.B., Waites K.B. Comparison of the illumigene Mycoplasma DNA amplification assay and culture for detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Clin Microbiol. 2014;52(4):1060-1063. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02913-13
  • 139. Bébéar C.M., Pereyre S. Mechanisms of drug resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord. 2005;5(3):263-271. DOI: 10.2174/1568005054880109
  • 140. Pereyre S., Guyot C., Renaudin H., Charron A., Bebear C., Bebear C.M. In vitro selection and characterization of resistance to macrolides and related antibiotics in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(2):460-465. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.48.2.460-465.2004
  • 141. Gruson D., Pereyre S., Renaudin H., Charron A., Bebear C., Bebear C.M. In vitro development of resistance to six and four fluoroquinolones in Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma hominis, respectively. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(3):1190-1193. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.49.3.1190-1193.2005
  • 142. Sainath Rao S., Raghunathan M. In vitro activity of the new quinolone derivative RD-3 against clinical isolates of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma hominis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64(6):1336-1338. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkp375
  • 143. Degrange S., Renaudin H., Charron A., Pereyre S., Bebear C., Bebear C.M. Reduced susceptibility to tetracyclines is associated in vitro with the presence of 16S rRNA mutations in Mycoplasma hominis and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;61(6):1390-1392. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkn118
  • 144. Pioletti M. Crystal structures of complexes of the small ribosomal subunit with tetracycline, edeine and IF3. EMBO J. 2001;20(8):1829-1839. DOI: 10.1093/emboj/20.8.1829
  • 145. Pereyre S., Charron A., Renaudin H., Bebear C., Bebear C.M. First report of macrolide-resistant strains and description of a novel nucleotide sequence variation in the P1 adhesin gene in Mycoplasma pneumoniae clinical strains isolated in France over 12 years. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(11):3534-3539. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.01345-07
  • 146. Niitu Y., Hasegawa S., Suetake T., Kubota H., Komatsu S., Horikawa M. Resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae to erythromycin and other antibiotics. J Pediatr. 1970;76(3):438-443. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-3476(70)80485-1
  • 147. Critchley I.A., Jones M.E., Heinze P.D., Hubbard D., Engler H.D., Evangelista A.T., et al. In vitro activity of levofloxacin against contemporary clinical isolates of Legionella pneumophila, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae from North America and Europe. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2002;8(4):214-221. DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-0691.2002.00392.x.
  • 148. Stopler T., Branski D. Resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae to macrolides, lincomycin and streptogramin B. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1986;18(3):359-364. DOI: 10.1093/jac/18.3.359
  • 149. Morozumi M., Iwata S., Hasegawa K., Chiba N., Takayanagi R., Matsubara K., et al. Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in pediatric patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52(1):348-350. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00779-07
  • 150. Matsuda K., Narita M., Sera N., Maeda E., Yoshitomi H., Ohya H., et al. Gene and cytokine profile analysis of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Fukuoka, Japan. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13(1):591. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-591
  • 151. Edelstein I.A., Edelstein M.V., Romanov A.V., Zaitsev A.A., Rakovskaya I.V., Barkhatova O.I., et al. Four cases of resistance mutations in 23S rRNA gene in Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolated fromhospitalized military personnel. Kliniceskaa mikrobiologia i antimikrobnaa himioterapia. 2017;19(3):248-253. Russian.
  • 152. Cao B., Zhao C., Yin Y., Zhao F., Song S.F., Bai L., et al. High prevalence of macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates from adult and adolescent patients with respiratory tract infection in China. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51(2):189-194. DOI: 10.1086/653535
  • 153. Xin D., Mi Z., Han X., Qin L., Li J., Wei T., et al. Molecular mechanisms of macrolide resistance in clinical isolates of Mycoplasma pneumoniae from China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(5):2158-2159. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.01563-08
  • 154. Zhao F., Liu G., Wu J., Cao B., Tao X., He L., et al. Surveillance of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in Beijing, China, from 2008 to 2012. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57(3):1521-1523. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.02060-12
  • 155. Akaike H., Miyashita N., Kubo M., Kawai Y., Tanaka T., Ogita S., et al. In vitro activities of 11 antimicrobial agents against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates from pediatric patients: results from a multicenter surveillance study. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2012;65(6):535-538. DOI: 10.7883/yoken.65.535
  • 156. Miyashita N., Akaike H., Teranishi H., Ouchi K., Okimoto N. Macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in adolescents and adults: clinical findings, drug susceptibility, and therapeutic efficacy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57(10):5181-5185. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00737-13
  • 157. Diaz M.H., Benitez A.J., Cross K.E., Hicks L.A., Kutty P., Bramley A.M., et al. Molecular detection and characterization of Mycoplasma pneumoniae among patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia in the United States. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015; 2(3):ofv106. DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofv106
  • 158. Cardinale F., Chironna M., Chinellato I., Principi N., Esposito S. Clinical relevance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae macrolide resistance in children. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51(2):723-724. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02840-12
  • 159. Wu P.S., Chang L.Y., Lin H.C., Chi H., Hsieh Y.C., Huang Y.C., et al. Epidemiology and clinical manifestations of children with macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in Taiwan. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2013;48(9):904-911. DOI: 10.1002/ppul.22706
  • 160. Matsubara K., Morozumi M., Okada T., Matsushima T., Komiyama O., Shoji M., et al. A comparative clinical study of macrolide-sensitive and macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in pediatric patients. J Infect Chemother. 2009;15(6):380-383. DOI: 10.1007/s10156-009-0715-7
  • 161. Suzuki S., Yamazaki T., Narita M., Okazaki N., Suzuki I., Andoh T., et al. Clinical evaluation of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;50(2):709-712. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.50.2.709-712.2006
  • 162. Baseman J.B., Tully J.G. Mycoplasmas: sophisticated, reemerging, and burdened by their notoriety. Emerg Infect Dis. 1997; 3(1):21-32. DOI: 10.3201/eid0301.970103
Views
0 Abstract
0 PDF
0 Crossref citations
Shared