Abstract
Respiratory tract infections are the most common human infectious diseases. These infections may cause serious complications and cause tremendous economic losses. Therefore the adequate treatment of different types of respiratory infections, consideration regarding the need for antimicrobial therapy and the rational choice of antibiotics highly active against the presumptive pathogens are of extreme importance. During the last years increasingly more data arise, which fairly change the traditional conceptions regarding etiology and pathogenesis of respiratory tract infections. This new knowledge includes the discovery of some previously unknown characteristics in universally recognized pathogens and also the reappraisal of the role of atypical pathogens in acute respiratory infections, various respiratory tract disorders. Authors of the present review made an attempt to summarize the presently available data supporting new views regarding different aspects of etiology and pathogenesis and contemporary approaches to antimicrobial therapy of respiratory tract infections.
-
1.
Fendrick A.M., Monto A.S., Nightengale B., et al. The economic burden of non-influenza-related viral respiratory tract infection in the United States. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163(4): 487-94.
-
2.
Bisno A.L. Pharyngitis. In: Mandell G.L., Bennett J.E., Dolin R., editors. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases. 6th ed. Philadelpia: Churhill Livingstone; 2005. p. 752-8.
-
3.
Bisno A.L., Gerber M.A., Gwaltney J.M. et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35:113- 25.
-
4.
Linder J.A., Bates D.W., Lee G.M., et al. Antibiotic treatment of children with sore throat. JAMA 2005; 294(18):2315-22.
-
5.
Применение антибиотиков у детей в амбулаторной практике. Методические рекомендации под ред. А.А. Баранова и Л.С. Страчунского. Клин микробиол антимикроб химиотер 2007; 9(3):200-10.
-
6.
Kaplan E.L., Johnson D.R. Unexplained reduced microbiological efficacy of intramuscular benzathine penicillin G and of oral penicillin V in eradication of group a streptococci from children with acute pharyngitis. Pediatrics 2001; 8:1180-6.
-
7.
Ovetchkine P., Levy C., de la Rocque F., et al. Variables influencing bacteriological outcome in patients with streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis treated with penicillin V. Eur J Pediatr 2002: 161:365-7.
-
8.
Pichichero M.E., Casey J.R., Mayes T., et al. Penicillin failure in streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis: causes and remedies. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19:917-23.
-
9.
Kaplan E.L., Chhatwal G.S., Rohde M. Reduced ability of penicillin to eradicate ingested group A streptococci from epithelial cells: Clinical and pathogenetic implications. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43(11):1398-406.
-
10.
Post J.C., Stoodley P., Hall-Stoodley L., et al. The role of biofilms in otolaryngologic infections. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2004; 12:185-90.
-
11.
Niederman M.S., Sarosi G.A., Glassroth G. Editors. Respiratory Infections. LippincottWilliams and Wilkins; 2 nd Edition, 2001.
-
12.
Stewart P.S. Theoretical aspects of antibiotic diffusion into microbial biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40:2517-22.
-
13.
Esposito S., Bosis S., Begliatti E., et al. Acute tonsillopharyngitis associated with atypical bacterial infection in children: natural history and impact of macrolide therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43(2):206-9.
-
14.
Principi N., Esposito S. Emerging role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in paediatric respiratory-tract infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2001; 1:334-4.
-
15.
Esposito, S., Cavagna, R., Bosis, S., et al. Emerging role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with acute pharyngitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2002; 21:607-10.
-
16.
Esposito S. Aetiology of acute pharyngitis: the role of atypical bacteria. J Med Microbiol 2004; 53:645-51.
-
17.
Dorigo-Zetsma J. W., Wilbrink B., van der Nat H., Bartelds A. I. M., Heijnen M.-L. A., Dankert J. Results of molecular detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae among patients with acute respiratory infection and in their household contacts reveals children as human reservoirs. J Infect Dis 2001; 183:675-8.
-
18.
Esposito S., Marchisio P., Capaccio P., et al. Role of atypical bacteria in children undergoing tonsillectomy because of severely recurrent acute tonsillopharyngitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 27(12):1233-7.
-
19.
Zalesska-Krecicka M., Choroszy-Król I., Skrzypek A., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae occurrence in children with adenoid vegetations. Otolaryngol Pol 2006; 60(6):859- 64.
-
20.
Normann E., Gnarpe J., Nääs H., et al.. Chlamydia pneumoniae in children undergoing adenoidectomy. Acta Pediatr 2001: 90:126-9.
-
21.
Blasi F. Atypical pathogens and respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J 2004; 24:171-81.
-
22.
Gonzales R., Sande M.A. Uncomplicated acute bronchitis. Ann Intern Med 2001; 135 (9):839-40.
-
23.
Principi N., Esposito S., Cavagna R., et al. Recurrent respiratory tract infections in pediatric age: a population-based survey of the therapeutic role of macrolides. J Chemother 2003; 15(1):53-9.
-
24.
Stelmach I., Podsiadłowicz-Borzecka M., Jurałowicz D., et al. Analysis of possible causes of recurrent respiratory tract infections in children from Lodz, Poland. Pneumonol Alergol Pol 2003; 71 (5-6):237-44.
-
25.
Mayaud C. Epidemiology of acute lower respiratory tract infections in adults. Role of Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Presse Med 1997; 26(26):1248-53.
-
26.
Wangroongsarb P., Geenkajorn K., Pektkanchanapong W., et al. Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection among young children with respiratory diseases in Thailand. Jpn J Infect Dis 2003; 56(4):146-50.
-
27.
Ikezawa S. Prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae in acute respiratory tract infection and detection of antiChlamydia pneumoniae-specific IgE in Japanese children with reactive airway disease. Kurume Med J 2001; 48(2):165-70.
-
28.
Vishniakova L.A., Zhogolev S.D., Moshkevich I.R. Pneumococcal and chlamydial infections in a closed community. Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol 2001; 4:60-4.
-
29.
Ouchi K., Komura H., Fujii M., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in pediatric patients. Kansenshogaku Zasshi 1999; 73(12):1177-82.
-
30.
Macfarlane J., Holmes W., Gard P., et al. Prospective study of the incidence, aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract illness in the community. Thorax 2001; 56(2):109-14.
-
31.
Esposito S., Bosis S., Faelli N., et al. Role of atypical bacteria and azithromycin therapy for children with recurrent respiratory tract infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005; 24(5):438-44.
-
32.
Schmidt S.M., Muller C.E., Mahner B., et al. Prevalence, rate of persistence and respiratory tract symptoms of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in 1211 kindergarten and school age children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002; 21(8):758-63.
-
33.
Versteegh F.G., Weverling G.J., Peeters M.F., et al. Community-acquired pathogens associated with prolonged coughing in children: a prospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect 2005; 11(10):801-7.
-
34.
Сиземов А. Н., Комелева Е. В. Коклюш: клиника, диагностика, лечение. Лечащий врач 2005; 7:82-7.
-
35.
Harnden A., Grant C., Harrison T., et al. Whooping cough in school age children with persistent cough: prospective cohort study in primary care. BMJ 2006; 333 (7560):174-7.
-
36.
Sabella C. Pertussis: old foe, persistent problem. Cleve Clin J Med 2005; 72(7):601-8.
-
37.
Boulouffe C., Vanpee D. Increasing cause of cough among adults. Emerg Med Australas 2008; 20(3):280-3.
-
38.
Altunaiji S., Kukuruzovic R., Curtis N., Massie J. Antibiotics for whooping cough (pertussis). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005; (1):CD004404.
-
39.
Tiwari T., Murphy T.V., Moran J.; National Immunization Program, CDC. Recommended antimicrobial agents for the treatment and postexposure prophylaxis of pertussis: 2005 CDC Guidelines. MMWR Recomm Rep 2005; 54(RR-14):1-16.
-
40.
Murphy T.F., Sethi S. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: role of bacteria and guide to antibacterial selection in the older patient. Drugs Aging 2002; 19:761-75.
-
41.
Sethi S. Infectious etiology of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest 2000; 117(5 Suppl 2):380S-5S.
-
42.
Ito T., Yoshida S. Administration of acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nippon Rinsho 2003; 61(12):2170-4.
-
43.
Beaty C.D., Grayston J.T., Wang S.P., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae, strain TWAR, infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:1408-10.
-
44.
Blasi F., Legnani D., Lombardo V.M., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in acute exacerbations of COPD. Eur Respir J 1993; 6:19-22.
-
45.
Miyashita N., Niki Y., Nakajima M., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis and COPD. Chest 1998; 114:969-71.
-
46.
Soler N., Torres A., Ewig S., et al. Bronchial microbial patterns in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) requiring mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:1498- 505.
-
47.
Mogulkoc N., Karakurt S., Isalska B., et al. Acute purulent exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160:349-53.
-
48.
Karnak D., Beng-sun S., Beder S., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Respir Med 2001; 95:811-6.
-
49.
Seemungal T.A., Wedzicha J.A., MacCallum P.K., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae and COPD exacerbation. Thorax 2002; 57:1087-8.
-
50.
Blasi F., Damato S., Cosentini R., et al. Chlamydia pneumoniae and chronic bronchitis: association with severity and bacterial clearance following treatment. Thorax 2002; 57:672-6.
-
51.
European study on community-acquired pneumonia committee. Management of adult community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir Rev 1998; 8:391-426.