Abstract
An update on 2010 clinical practice guideline on Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) was published in March 2018. This new version of guideline not only includes significant changes in the management of this infection and reflects the evolving controversy over best methods for diagnosis and threatment of CDI but has also incorporated recommendations for children. This document currently is the most complete and up to date source of information on CDI. In the present article we reviewed this new IDSA/SHEA guideline and compared it with existing European and Russian guidelines.
Institute of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Smolensk, Russia
A.N. Ryzhikh State Scientific Center of Coloproctology, Moscow, Russia
Institute of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Smolensk, Russia
Institute of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Smolensk, Russia
Perm State Medical University named after E.A. Wagner, Perm, Russia
National Medical Research Center of Neurosurgery named after N.N. Burdenko, Moscow, Russia
A.V. Vishnevsky National Medical Research Center of Surgery, Moscow, Russia
A.N. Bakulev National Medical Research Center of Cardiovascular Surgery, Moscow, Russia
Institute of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Smolensk, Russia
Institute of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, Smolensk, Russia
-
1.
McDonald L.C., Gerding D.N., Johnson S., et al. Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66(7):987-994.
-
2.
Cohen S.H., Gerding D.N., Johnson S., et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31(5):431-455.
-
3.
Guyatt G.H., Oxman A.D., Kunz R., et al; GRADE Working Group. Going from evidence to recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336:10491051.
-
4.
Guyatt G.H., Oxman A.D., Kunz R., et al; GRADE Working Group. Incorporating considerations of resources use into grading recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336:1170-1173.
-
5.
Debast S.B., Bauer M.P., Kuijper E.J.; European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(Suppl. 2):1-26.
-
6.
Crobach M.J., Planche T., Eckert C., et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the diagnostic guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22(Suppl. 4):S63-81.
-
7.
Ivashkin V.T., Yushchuk N.D., Mayev I.V., et al. Diagnostics and treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease: Guidelines of the Russian gastroenterological association. Rossijskij zhurnal gastrojenterologii, gepatologii i koloproktologii. 2016;26(5):56-65. Russian.
-
8.
Dubberke E., Butler A., Hota B., et al. Impact of community-onset infections on surveillance for Clostridium difficile infections: a multicenter study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30:518-525.
-
9.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Multidrugresistant organism and Clostridium difficile infection (MDRO/ CDI) module. 2016. Available at: www.cdc.gov/nhsn/pdfs/pscmanual/12pscmdro_cdadcurrent.pdf. Accessed 9 March 2016.
-
10.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The NHSN standardized infection ratio (SIR); a guide to the SIR. 2017. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/pdfs/ps-analysis-resources/nhsn-sir-guide.pdf. Accessed 11 January 2018.
-
11.
Gould C.V., Edwards J.R., Cohen J., et al; Clostridium difficile Infection Surveillance Investigators, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Effect of nucleic acid amplification testing on populationbased incidence rates of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1304-1307.
-
12.
Moehring R.W., Lofgren E.T., Anderson D.J. Impact of change to molecular testing for Clostridium difficile infection on healthcare facility-associated incidence rates. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34:1055-1061.
-
13.
Zilberberg M.D., Tabak Y.P., Sievert D.M., et al. Using electronic health information to risk-stratify rates of Clostridium difficile infection in US hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32:649-655.
-
14.
Dubberke E.R., Butler A.M., Yokoe D.S., et al. Multicenter study of Clostridium difficile infection rates from 2000 to 2006. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31:1030-1037.
-
15.
Tenover F.C., Novak-Weekley S., Woods C.W., et al. Impact of strain type on detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile: comparison of molecular diagnostic and enzyme immunoassay approaches. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48:3719-3724.
-
16.
Lee Y., Kim M., Kim H., Lee K. Comparison of sensitivity of enzyme immunoassays for toxin A and B in different C. difficile PCR ribotypes. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2014;44:38-41.
-
17.
Thompson N.D., Edwards J.R., Dudeck M.A., Fridkin S.K., Magill S.S. Evaluating the use of the case mix index for risk adjustment of healthcare-associated infection data: an illustration using Clostridium difficile infection data from the National Healthcare Safety Network. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2016;37:19-25.
-
18.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: prevention Clostridium difficile infection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6109a3.htm. Accessed 9 March 2016.
-
19.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emerging Infections Program – healthcare-associated infections projects. 2015. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/hai/eip/index.html. Accessed 9 March 2016.
-
20.
Lessa F.C., Mu Y., Bamberg W.M., et al. Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:825-834.
-
21.
Chitnis A.S., Holzbauer S.M., Belflower R.M., et al. Epidemiology of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection, 2009 through 2011. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1359-1367.
-
22.
Magill S.S., Edwards J.R., Bamberg W., et al; Emerging Infections Program Healthcare-Associated Infections and Antimicrobial Use Prevalence Survey Team. Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections. N Engl J Med. 2014; 70:1198-1208.
-
23.
Miller B.A., Chen L.F., Sexton D.J., Anderson D.J. Comparison of the burdens of hospital-onset, healthcare facility-associated Clostridium difficile infection and of healthcare-associated infection due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in community hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32:387-390.
-
24.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP). 2016. Available at: http://hcupnet.ahrq.gov/. Accessed 9 March 2016.
-
25.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National and state healthcare-associated infections progress report. 2016. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/pdfs/progress-report/hai-progress-report.pdf. Accessed 9 March 2016.
-
26.
Simor A.E., Bradley S.F., Strausbaugh L.J., Crossley K., Nicolle L.E.; SHEA Long-Term-Care Committee. Clostridium difficile in longterm-care facilities for the elderly. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002;23:696-703.
-
27.
Walker K.J., Gilliland S.S., Vance-Bryan K., et al. Clostridium difficile colonization in residents of long-term care facilities: prevalence and risk factors. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1993;41:940-946.
-
28.
Hunter J.C., Mu Y., Dumyati G.K., et al. Burden of nursing homeonset Clostridium difficile infection in the United States: estimates of incidence and patient outcomes. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3:ofv196.
-
29.
Dubberke E.R., Olsen M.A. Burden of Clostridium difficile on the healthcare system. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(Suppl 2):S88-92.
-
30.
Brown K.A., Jones M., Daneman N., et al. Importation, antibiotics, and Clostridium difficile infection in Veteran long-term care: a multilevel case-control study. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:787-794.
-
31.
Loo V.G., Poirier L., Miller M.A., et al. A predominantly clonal multiinstitutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2442-2449.
-
32.
Muto C.A., Pokrywka M., Shutt K., et al. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26:273280.
-
33.
Kwon J.H., Olsen M.A., Dubberke E.R. The morbidity, mortality, and costs associated with Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2015;29:123-134.
-
34.
Vallabhaneni S., Almendares O., Farley M.M., et al. Epidemiology and factors associated with candidaemia following Clostridium difficile infection in adults within metropolitan Atlanta, 2009-2013. Epidemiol Infect. 2016;144:1440-1444.
-
35.
Fekety R., McFarland L.V., Surawicz C.M., et al. Recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhea: characteristics of and risk factors for patients enrolled in a prospective, randomized, double-blinded trial. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:324-333.
-
36.
McFarland L.V., Surawicz C.M., Rubin M., et al. Recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: epidemiology and clinical characteristics. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1999;20:43-50.
-
37.
Kyne L., Hamel M.B., Polavaram R., Kelly C.P. Health care costs and mortality associated with nosocomial diarrhea due to Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:346-353.
-
38.
Miller M.A., Hyland M., Ofner-Agostini M., Gourdeau M., Ishak M.; Canadian Hospital Epidemiology Committee. Canadian Nosocomial Infection Surveillance Program. Morbidity, mortality, and healthcare burden of nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in Canadian hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002;23:137-140.
-
39.
Olson M.M., Shanholtzer C.J., Lee J.T. Jr., Gerding D.N. Ten years of prospective Clostridium difficile-associated disease surveillance and treatment at the Minneapolis VA Medical Center, 1982-1991. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1994;15:371-381.
-
40.
Dallal R.M., Harbrecht B.G., Boujoukas A.J., et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications. Ann Surg. 2002;235:363-372.
-
41.
Loo V.G., Bourgault A.M., Poirier L., et al. Host and pathogen factors for Clostridium difficile infection and colonization. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1693-1703.
-
42.
Olsen M.A., Yan Y., Reske K.A., Zilberberg M.D., Dubberke E.R. Recurrent Clostridium difficile infection is associated with increased mortality. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21:164-170.
-
43.
Zakharova N.V., Fil T.S. Microbiologic and clinical features of Clostridium difficile infection. Infectsionnye bolezni. 2015;13(3):8186. Russian.
-
44.
Dmitrieva N.V., Klyasova G.A., Bakulina N.V., et al. A prevalence of Clostridium difficileassociated diarrhea in hospitalized patients (results of a Russian prospective multicenter study). Klinicheskaja mikrobiologija i antimikrobnaja himioterapija. 2017;19:268-274. Russian.
-
45.
McDonald L.C., Killgore G.E., Thompson A., et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2433-2441.
-
46.
Eggertson L. Quebec strain of C. difficile in 7 provinces. CMAJ. 2006;174:607-608.
-
47.
Warny M., Pepin J., Fang A., et al. Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet. 2005;366:10791084.
-
48.
Health Protection Agency. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a hospital in southeast England. CDR Wkly. 2005;15.
-
49.
Kuijper E., Barbut F., Brazier J., et al. Update of Clostridium difficile infection due to PCR ribotype 027 in Europe, 2008. Euro Surveill. 2008;13:18942.
-
50.
Kuijper E.J., Debast S.B., Van Kregten E., et al. Clostridium difficile ribotype 027, toxinotype III in The Netherlands [in Dutch]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2005;149:2087-2089.
-
51.
Kato H., Ito Y., van den Berg R., Kuijper E., Arakawa Y. First isolation of Clostridium difficile 027 in Japan. Euro Surveill. 2007;12:EO70111.3.
-
52.
See I., Mu Y., Cohen J., et al. NAP1 strain type predicts outcomes from Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:13941400.
-
53.
Wilcox M.H., Shetty N., Fawley W.N., et al. Changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection following the introduction of a national ribotyping-based surveillance scheme in England. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1056-1063.
-
54.
Goorhuis A., Bakker D., Corver J., et al. Emergence of Clostridium difficile infection due to a new hypervirulent strain, polymerase chain reaction ribotype 078. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:1162-1170.
-
55.
Jhung M.A., Thompson A.D., Killgore G.E., et al. Toxinotype V Clostridium difficile in humans and food animals. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:1039-1045.
-
56.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease in populations previously at low risk – four states, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:12011205.
-
57.
Dial S., Delaney J.A., Barkun A.N., Suissa S. Use of gastric acidsuppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA. 2005;294:2989-2995.
-
58.
James A.H., Katz V.L., Dotters D.J., Rogers R.G. Clostridium difficile infection in obstetric and gynecologic patients. South Med J. 1997;90:889-892.
-
59.
Johal S.S., Hammond J., Solomon K., James P.D., Mahida Y.R. Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea in hospitalised patients: onset in the community and hospital and role of flexible sigmoidoscopy. Gut. 2004;53:673-677.
-
60.
Kyne L., Merry C., O’Connell B., Keane C., O’Neill D. Communityacquired Clostridium difficile infection. J Infect. 1998;36:287-288.
-
61.
Terhes G., Urbán E., Sóki J., Hamid K.A., Nagy E. Communityacquired Clostridium difficile diarrhea caused by binary toxin, toxin A, and toxin B gene-positive isolates in Hungary. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42:4316-4318.
-
62.
Kuntz J.L., Johnson E.S., Raebel M.A., et al. Predicting the risk of Clostridium difficile infection following an outpatient visit: development and external validation of a pragmatic, prognostic risk score. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2015;21:256-262.
-
63.
Negrón M.E., Rezaie A., Barkema H.W., et al. Ulcerative colitis patients with Clostridium difficile are at increased risk of death, colectomy, and postoperative complications: a population-based inception cohort study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016;111:691-704.
-
64.
Razik R., Rumman A., Bahreini Z., McGeer A., Nguyen G.C. Recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: the RECIDIVISM Study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016;111:1141-1146.
-
65.
Peng J.C., Shen J., Zhu Q., Ran Z.H. The impact of Clostridum difficile on surgical rate among ulcerative colitis patients: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2015;21:208-212.
-
66.
Donnelly J.P., Wang H.E., Locke J.E., et al. Hospital-onset Clostridium difficile infection among solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2015;15:2970-2977.
-
67.
Paudel S., Zacharioudakis I.M., Zervou F.N., Ziakas P.D., Mylonakis E. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile infection among solid organ transplant recipients: a meta-analysis of published studies. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0124483.
-
68.
Phatharacharukul P., Thongprayoon C., Cheungpasitporn W., et al. The risks of incident and recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dig Dis Sci. 2015;60:2913-2922.
-
69.
Thongprayoon C., Cheungpasitporn W., Phatharacharukul P., et al. Chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease are risk factors for poor outcomes of Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Clin Pract. 2015;69:998-1006.
-
70.
Zacharioudakis I.M., Ziakas P.D., Mylonakis E. Clostridium difficile infection in the hematopoietic unit: a meta-analysis of published studies. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2014;20:1641-1665.
-
71.
McFarland L.V., Mulligan M.E., Kwok R.Y., Stamm W.E. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:204-210.
-
72.
Curry S.R., Muto C.A., Schlackman J.L., et al. Use of multilocus variable number of tandem repeats analysis genotyping to determine the role of asymptomatic carriers in Clostridium difficile transmission. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1094-1102.
-
73.
Rivera E.V., Woods S. Prevalence of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonization in a nursing home population: a cross-sectional study. J Gend Specif Med. 2003;6:27-30.
-
74.
Aronsson B., Molby R., Nord C. Antimicrobial agents and Clostridium difficile in acute enteric disease: epidemiological data from Sweden, 1980-1982. J Infect Dis. 1985;151:476-481.
-
75.
Viscidi R., Willey S., Bartlett J.G. Isolation rates and toxigenic potential of Clostridium difficile isolates from various patient populations. Gastroenterology. 1981;81:5-9.
-
76.
Zacharioudakis I.M., Zervou F.N., Pliakos E.E., Ziakas P.D., Mylonakis E. Colonization with toxinogenic C. difficile upon hospital admission, and risk of infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015; 110:381-390; quiz 391.
-
77.
Kyne L., Warny M., Qamar A., Kelly C.P. Asymptomatic carriage of Clostridium difficile and serum levels of IgG antibody against toxin A. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:390-397.
-
78.
Kyne L., Warny M., Qamar A., Kelly C.P. Association between antibody response to toxin A and protection against recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Lancet. 2001;357:189-193.
-
79.
Shim J.K., Johnson S., Samore M.H., Bliss D.Z., Gerding D.N. Primary symptomless colonisation by Clostridium difficile and decreased risk of subsequent diarrhoea. Lancet. 1998;351:633-636.
-
80.
Sambol S.P., Tang J.K., Merrigan M.M., Johnson S., Gerding D.N. Infection of hamsters with epidemiologically important strains of Clostridium difficile. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:1760-1766.
-
81.
Bobulsky G.S., Al-Nassir W.N., Riggs M.M., Sethi A.K., Donskey C.J. Clostridium difficile skin contamination in patients with C. difficileassociated disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:447-450.
-
82.
Fawley W.N., Wilcox M.H. Molecular epidemiology of endemic Clostridium difficile infection. Epidemiol Infect. 2001;126:343-350.
-
83.
Mayfield J.L., Leet T., Miller J., Mundy L.M. Environmental control to reduce transmission of Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:995-1000.
-
84.
Samore M.H., Venkataraman L., DeGirolami P.C., Arbeit R.D., Karchmer W. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of sporadic and clustered cases of nosocomial Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Am J Med. 1996;100:32-40.
-
85.
Wilcox M.H., Fawley W.N., Wigglesworth N., et al. Comparison of the effect of detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 2003;54:109-114.
-
86.
Shaughnessy M.K., Micielli R.L., DePestel D.D., et al. Evaluation of hospital room assignment and acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32:201-206.
-
87.
Brooks S.E., Veal R.O., Kramer M., Dore L., Schupf N., Adachi M. Reduction in the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in an acute care hospital and a skilled nursing facility following replacement of electronic thermometers with single-use disposables. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1992;13:98-103.
-
88.
Walker A.S., Eyre D.W., Wyllie D.H., et al. Characterisation of Clostridium difficile hospital ward-based transmission using extensive epidemiological data and molecular typing. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001172.
-
89.
Eyre D.W., Cule M.L., Wilson D.J., et al. Diverse sources of C. difficile infection identified on whole-genome sequencing. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1195-1205.
-
90.
Brown K., Valenta K., Fisman D., Simor A., Daneman N. Hospital ward antibiotic prescribing and the risks of Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:626-633.
-
91.
Freedberg D.E., Salmasian H., Cohen B., Abrams J.A., Larson E.L. Receipt of antibiotics in hospitalized patients and risk for Clostridium difficile infection in subsequent patients who occupy the same bed. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:1801-1808.
-
92.
Sethi A.K., Al-Nassir W.N., Nerandzic M.M., Bobulsky G.S., Donskey C.J. Persistence of skin contamination and environmental shedding of Clostridium difficile during and after treatment of C. difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31:21-27.
-
93.
McDonald L., Owings M., Jernigan D. Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged from US short-stay hospitals, 1996-2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:409-415.
-
94.
Pepin J., Valiquette L., Alary M., et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity. CMAJ. 2004;31:466-472.
-
95.
Johnson S., Gerding D.N. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:1027-1034; quiz 1035-6.
-
96.
Hensgens M.P., Goorhuis A., Dekkers O.M., Kuijper E.J. Time interval of increased risk for Clostridium difficile infection after exposure to antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:742-748.
-
97.
Pépin J., Saheb N., Coulombe M.A., et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1254-1260.
-
98.
Johnson S., Samore M.H., Farrow K.A., et al. Epidemics of diarrhea caused by a clindamycin-resistant strain of Clostridium difficile in four hospitals. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:1645-1651.
-
99.
Thibault A., Miller M.A., Gaese C. Risk factors for the development of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea during a hospital outbreak. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1991;12:345-348.
-
100.
Dethlefsen L., Huse S., Sogin M.L., Relman D.A. The pervasive effects of an antibiotic on the human gut microbiota, as revealed by deep 16S rRNA sequencing. PLoS Biol. 2008;6:e280.
-
101.
Privitera G., Scarpellini P., Ortisi G., et al. Prospective study of Clostridium difficile intestinal colonization and disease following single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis in surgery. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991;35:208-210.
-
102.
Anand A., Glatt A.E. Clostridium difficile infection associated with antineoplastic chemotherapy: a review. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:109113.
-
103.
Morales Chamorro R., Serrano Blanch R., Méndez Vidal M.J., et al. Pseudomembranous colitis associated with chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil. Clin Transl Oncol. 2005;7:258-261.
-
104.
Bilgrami S., Feingold J.M., Dorsky D., et al. Incidence and outcome of Clostridium difficile infection following autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1999;23:10391042.
-
105.
Gorschlüter M., Glasmacher A., Hahn C., et al. Clostridium difficile infection in patients with neutropenia. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:786791.
-
106.
Sanchez T., Brooks J., Sullivan P., et al. Bacterial diarrhea in persons with HIV infection, United States, 1992-2002. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1621-1627.
-
107.
Bliss D.Z., Johnson S., Savik K., et al. Acquisition of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in hospitalized patients receiving tube feeding. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:10121019.
-
108.
Deshpande A., Pasupuleti V., Thota P., et al. Risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2015;36:452-460.
-
109.
Abou Chakra C.N., Pepin J., Sirard S., Valiquette L. Risk factors for recurrence, complications and mortality in Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2014;9:e98400.
-
110.
Bauer M.P., Nibbering P.H., Poxton I.R., Kuijper E.J., van Dissel J.T. Humoral immune response as predictor of recurrence in Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20:1323-1328.
-
111.
Sahay T., Ananthakrishnan A.N. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: a case-control study. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:661.
-
112.
Wang W.J., Gray S., Sison C., et al. Low vitamin D level is an independent predictor of poor outcomes in Clostridium difficileassociated diarrhea. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2014;7:14-19.
-
113.
Stevens V., Dumyati G., Brown J., Wijngaarden E. Differential risk of Clostridium difficile infection with proton pump inhibitor use by level of antibiotic exposure. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2011;20:10351042.
-
114.
Howell M.D., Novack V., Grgurich P., et al. Iatrogenic gastric acid suppression and the risk of nosocomial Clostridium difficile infection. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:784-790.
-
115.
Cunningham R., Dale B., Undy B., Gaunt N. Proton pump inhibitors as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. J Hosp Infect. 2003;54:243-245.
-
116.
Dial S., Alrasadi K., Manoukian C., Huang A., Menzies D. Risk of Clostridium difficile diarrhea among hospital inpatients prescribed proton pump inhibitors: cohort and case-control studies. CMAJ. 2004;171:33-38.
-
117.
Novack L., Kogan S., Gimpelevich L., et al. Acid suppression therapy does not pre-dispose to Clostridium difficile infection: the case of the potential bias. PLoS One. 2014;9:e110790.
-
118.
Weiss K., Louie T., Miller M.A., et al. Effects of proton pump inhibitors and histamine-2 receptor antagonists on response to fidaxomicin or vancomycin in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. BMJ Open Gastroenterol. 2015;2:e000028.
-
119.
McDonald E.G., Milligan J., Frenette C., Lee T.C. Continuous proton pump inhibitor therapy and the associated risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:784-791.
-
120.
Seto C.T., Jeraldo P., Orenstein R., Chia N., DiBaise J.K. Prolonged use of a proton pump inhibitor reduces microbial diversity: implications for Clostridium difficile susceptibility. Microbiome. 2014;2:42.
-
121.
Benson L., Song X., Campos J., Singh N. Changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in children. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2007;28:1233-1235.
-
122.
Khanna S., Baddour L.M., Huskins W.C., et al. The epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection in children: a population-based study. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1401-1406.
-
123.
Kim J., Smathers S.A., Prasad P., et al. Epidemiological features of Clostridium difficile-associated disease among inpatients at children’s hospitals in the United States, 2001-2006. Pediatrics. 2008;122:1266-1270.
-
124.
Nylund C.M., Goudie A., Garza J.M., Fairbrother G., Cohen M.B. Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized children in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2011;165:451-457.
-
125.
Zilberberg M.D., Shorr A.F., Kollef M.H. Increase in Clostridium difficile-related hospitalizations among infants in the United States, 2000-2005. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27:1111-1113.
-
126.
Zilberberg M.D., Tillotson G.S., McDonald C. Clostridium difficile infections among hospitalized children, United States, 1997-2006. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16:604-609.
-
127.
Baker S.S., Faden H., Sayej W., Patel R., Baker R.D. Increasing incidence of community-associated atypical Clostridium difficile disease in children. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2010;49:644-647.
-
128.
Wendt J.M., Cohen J.A., Mu Y., et al. Clostridium difficile infection among children across diverse US geographic locations. Pediatrics. 2014;133:651-658.
-
129.
Kociolek L.K., Sandora T.J. National variability in surveillance, testing, and infection prevention for Clostridium difficile infection in pediatric populations. Am J Infect Control. 2013;41:933-935.
-
130.
Kociolek L.K., Patel S.J., Zheng X., et al. Clinical and microbiologic assessment of cases of pediatric community-associated Clostridium difficile infection reveals opportunities for improved testing decisions. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35:157-161.
-
131.
Bolton R.P., Tait S.K., Dear P.R., Losowsky M.S. Asymptomatic neonatal colonisation by Clostridium difficile. Arch Dis Child. 1984;59:466472.
-
132.
Delmée M., Verellen G., Avesani V., Francois G. Clostridium difficile in neonates: serogrouping and epidemiology. Eur J Pediatr. 1988;147:36-40.
-
133.
Donta S.T., Myers M.G. Clostridium difficile toxin in asymptomatic neonates. J Pediatr. 1982;100:431-434.
-
134.
Elstner C.L., Lindsay A.N., Book L.S., Matsen J.M. Lack of relationship of Clostridium difficile to antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children. Pediatr Infect Dis. 1983;2:364-366.
-
135.
Phua T.J., Rogers T.R., Pallett A.P. Prospective study of Clostridium difficile colonization and paracresol detection in the stools of babies on a special care unit. J Hyg (Lond). 1984;93:17-25.
-
136.
Rousseau C., Lemée L., Le Monnier A., et al. Prevalence and diversity of Clostridium difficile strains in infants. J Med Microbiol. 2011;60:1112-1118.
-
137.
Tullus K., Aronsson B., Marcus S., Möllby R. Intestinal colonization with Clostridium difficile in infants up to 18 months of age. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1989;8:390-393.
-
138.
Tvede M., Schiøtz P.O., Krasilnikoff P.A. Incidence of Clostridium difficile in hospitalized children. A prospective study. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1990;79:292-299.
-
139.
Ellis M.E., Mandal B.K., Dunbar E.M., Bundell K.R. Clostridium difficile and its cytotoxin in infants admitted to hospital with infectious gastroenteritis. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1984;288:524-526.
-
140.
Larson H.E., Barclay F.E., Honour P., Hill I.D. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile in infants. J Infect Dis. 1982;146:727-733.
-
141.
Toma S., Lesiak G., Magus M., Lo H.L., Delmée M. Serotyping of Clostridium difficile. J Clin Microbiol. 1988;26:426-428.
-
142.
Emeruwa A.C., Oguike J.U. Incidence of cytotoxin producing isolates of Clostridium difficile in faeces of neonates and children in Nigeria. Microbiologica. 1990;13:323-328.
-
143.
Penders J., Stobberingh E.E., van den Brandt P.A., van Ree R., Thijs C. Toxigenic and non-toxigenic Clostridium difficile: determinants of intestinal colonisation and role in childhood atopic manifestations. Gut. 2008;57:1025-1026.
-
144.
Stark P.L., Lee A. Clostridia isolated from the feces of infants during the first year of life. J Pediatr. 1982;100:362-365.
-
145.
Bacon A.E., Fekety R., Schaberg D.R., Faix R.G. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile colonization in newborns: results using a bacteriophage and bacteriocin typing system. J Infect Dis. 1988;158:349-354.
-
146.
Kato H., Kato N., Watanabe K., et al. Application of typing by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to the study of Clostridium difficile in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Clin Microbiol. 1994;32:2067-2070.
-
147.
Martirosian G., Kuipers S., Verbrugh H., van Belkum A., MeiselMikolajczyk F. PCR ribotyping and arbitrarily primed PCR for typing strains of Clostridium difficile from a Polish maternity hospital. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33:2016-2021.
-
148.
Camorlinga M., Muñoz O., Guiscafré H., Torres J. Colonization by Clostridium difficile in hospitalized children: risk factors and typification of the isolated strains. Arch Invest Med (Mex). 1991;22:19-26.
-
149.
Matsuki S., Ozaki E., Shozu M., et al. Colonization by Clostridium difficile of neonates in a hospital, and infants and children in three day-care facilities of Kanazawa, Japan. Int Microbiol. 2005;8:43-48.
-
150.
Jangi S., Lamont J.T. Asymptomatic colonization by Clostridium difficile in infants: implications for disease in later life. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;51:2-7.
-
151.
Sherertz R.J., Sarubbi F.A. The prevalence of Clostridium difficile and toxin in a nursery population: a comparison between patients with necrotizing enterocolitis and an asymptomatic group. J Pediatr. 1982;100:435-439.
-
152.
Stoesser N., Crook D.W., Fung R., et al. Molecular epidemiology of Clostridium difficile strains in children compared with that of strains circulating in adults with Clostridium difficile-associated infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:3994-3996.
-
153.
Wilcox M.H., Mooney L., Bendall R., Settle C.D, Fawley W.N. A casecontrol study of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62:388-396.
-
154.
Pant C., Anderson M.P., Deshpande A., et al. Health care burden of Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized children with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2013;19:1080-1085.
-
155.
Sandora T.J., Fung M., Flaherty K., et al. Epidemiology and risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:580-584.
-
156.
Tai E., Richardson L.C., Townsend J., Howard E., Mcdonald L.C. Clostridium difficile infection among children with cancer. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:610-612.
-
157.
Thompson C.M. Jr., Gilligan P.H., Fisher M.C., Long S.S. Clostridium difficile cytotoxin in a pediatric population. Am J Dis Child. 1983;137:271-274.
-
158.
Nylund C.M., Eide M., Gorman G.H. Association of Clostridium difficile infections with acid suppression medications in children. J Pediatr. 2014;165:979-984.e1.
-
159.
Brown K.E., Knoderer C.A., Nichols K.R., Crumby A.S. Acidsuppressing agents and risk for Clostridium difficile infection in pediatric patients. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2015;54:1102-1106.
-
160.
Castagnola E., Battaglia T., Bandettini R., et al. Clostridium difficileassociated disease in children with solid tumors. Support Care Cancer. 2009;17:321-324.
-
161.
Pokorn M., Radsel A., Cizman M., et al. Severe Clostridium difficileassociated disease in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27:944946.
-
162.
Kim J., Shaklee J.F., Smathers S., et al. Risk factors and outcomes associated with severe Clostridium difficile infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:134-138.
-
163.
Sammons J.S., Localio R., Xiao R., Coffin S.E., Zaoutis T. Clostridium difficile infection is associated with increased risk of death and prolonged hospitalization in children. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1-8.
-
164.
Tedesco F.J., Barton R.W., Alpers D.H. Clindamycin-associated colitis. A prospective study. Ann Intern Med. 1974;81:429-433.
-
165.
Teasley D.G., Gerding D.N., Olson M.M., et al. Prospective randomised trial of metronidazole versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea and colitis. Lancet. 1983;2:10431046.
-
166.
Fekety R., Silva J., Kauffman C., Buggy B., Deery H.G. Treatment of antibiotic-associated Clostridium difficile colitis with oral vancomycin: comparison of two dosage regimens. Am J Med. 1989;86:15-19.
-
167.
Johnson S., Louie T.J., Gerding D.N., et al; Polymer Alternative for CDI Treatment (PACT) Investigators. Vancomycin, metronidazole, or tolevamer for Clostridium difficile infection: results from two multinational, randomized, controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:345-354.
-
168.
Dubberke E.R., Han Z., Bobo L., et al. Impact of clinical symptoms on interpretation of diagnostic assays for Clostridium difficile infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:2887-2893.
-
169.
Peterson L.R., Manson R.U., Paule S.M., et al. Detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in stool samples by real-time polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of C. difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1152-1160.
-
170.
Lewis S.J., Heaton K.W. Stool form scale as a useful guide to intestinal transit time. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1997;32:920-924.
-
171.
Burnham C.A., Carroll K.C. Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection: an ongoing conundrum for clinicians and for clinical laboratories. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013;26:604-630.
-
172.
Wilcox M.H. Overcoming barriers to effective recognition and diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18(Suppl 6):13-20.
-
173.
Eastwood K., Else P., Charlett A., Wilcox M. Comparison of nine commercially available Clostridium difficile toxin detection assays, a real-time PCR assay for C. difficile tcdB, and a glutamate dehydrogenase detection assay to cytotoxin testing and cytotoxigenic culture methods. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:3211-3217.
-
174.
Planche T., Aghaizu A., Holliman R., et al. Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection by toxin detection kits: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis. 2008;8:777-784.
-
175.
Crobach M.J., Planche T., Eckert C., et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the diagnostic guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22(Suppl 4):S63-81.
-
176.
Gerding D.N., Olson M.M., Peterson L.R., et al. Clostridium difficileassociated diarrhea and colitis in adults. A prospective case-controlled epidemiologic study. Arch Intern Med. 1986;146:95-100.
-
177.
Bauer M.P., Notermans D.W., van Benthem B.H., et al; ECDIS Study Group. Clostridium difficile infection in Europe: a hospital-based survey. Lancet. 2011;377:63-73.
-
178.
Garey K.W., Graham G., Gerard L., et al. Prevalence of diarrhea at a university hospital and association with modifiable risk factors. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40:1030-1034.
-
179.
Planche T., Wilcox M. Reference assays for Clostridium difficile infection: one or two gold standards? J Clin Pathol. 2011;64:1-5.
-
180.
Kaltsas A., Simon M., Unruh L.H., et al. Clinical and laboratory characteristics of Clostridium difficile infection in patients with discordant diagnostic test results. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:13031307.
-
181.
Longtin Y., Trottier S., Brochu G., et al. Impact of the type of diagnostic assay on Clostridium difficile infection and complication rates in a mandatory reporting program. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:67-73.
-
182.
Planche T.D., Davies K.A., Coen P.G., et al. Differences in outcome according to Clostridium difficile testing method: a prospective multicentre diagnostic validation study of C. difficile infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:936-945.
-
183.
Polage C.R., Gyorke C.E., Kennedy M.A., et al. Overdiagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection in the molecular test era. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:1792-1801.
-
184.
Humphries R.M., Uslan D.Z., Rubin Z. Performance of Clostridium difficile toxin enzyme immunoassay and nucleic acid amplification tests stratified by patient disease severity. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51:869873.
-
185.
Zar F.A., Bakkanagari S.R., Moorthi K.M., Davis M.B. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:302-307.
-
186.
Katz D.A., Lynch M.E., Littenberg B. Clinical prediction rules to optimize cytotoxin testing for Clostridium difficile in hospitalized patients with diarrhea. Am J Med. 1996;100:487-495.
-
187.
Berry N., Sewell B., Jafri S., et al. Real-time polymerase chain reaction correlates well with clinical diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 2014;87:109-114.
-
188.
Aichinger E., Schleck C.D., Harmsen W.S., Nyre L.M., Patel R. Nonutility of repeat laboratory testing for detection of Clostridium difficile by use of PCR or enzyme immunoassay. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:3795-3797.
-
189.
Cardona D.M., Rand K.H. Evaluation of repeat Clostridium difficile enzyme immunoassay testing. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:36863689.
-
190.
Debast S.B., van Kregten E., Oskam K.M., et al. Effect on diagnostic yield of repeated stool testing during outbreaks of Clostridium difficileassociated disease. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008;14:622-624.
-
191.
Garimella P.S., Agarwal R., Katz A. The utility of repeat enzyme immunoassay testing for the diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review of the literature. J Postgrad Med. 2012;58:194198.
-
192.
Garey K.W., Ghantoji S.S., Shah D.N., et al. A randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled pilot study to assess the ability of rifaximin to prevent recurrent diarrhoea in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:2850-2855.
-
193.
Abujamel T., Cadnum J.L., Jury L.A., et al. Defining the vulnerable period for re-establishment of Clostridium difficile colonization after treatment of C. difficile infection with oral vancomycin or metronidazole. PLoS One. 2013;8:e76269.
-
194.
Gerding D.N., Meyer T., Lee C., et al. Administration of spores of nontoxigenic Clostridium difficile strain M3 for prevention of recurrent C. difficile infection: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;313:1719-1727.
-
195.
Sherwood R.A. Faecal markers of gastrointestinal inflammation. J Clin Pathol. 2012;65:981-985.
-
196.
El Feghaly R.E., Stauber J.L., Deych E., et al. Markers of intestinal inflammation, not bacterial burden, correlate with clinical outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1713-1721.
-
197.
El Feghaly R.E., Stauber J.L., Tarr P.I., Haslam D.B. Intestinal inflammatory bio-markers and outcome in pediatric Clostridium difficile infections. J Peds. 2013;163:1697-1704.e2.
-
198.
Jiang Z.D., DuPont H.L., Garey K., et al. A common polymorphism in the interleukin 8 gene promoter is associated with Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:1112-1116.
-
199.
Rousseau C., Poilane I., De Pontual L., et al. Clostridium difficile carriage in healthy infants in the community: a potential reservoir for pathogenic strains. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1209-1215.
-
200.
Parsons S.J., Fenton E., Dargaville P. Clostridium difficile associated severe enterocolitis: a feature of Hirschsprung’s disease in a neonate presenting late. J Paediatr Child Health. 2005;41:689-690.
-
201.
Pozo F., Soler P., Ladrón de Guevara C. Pseudomembranous colitis associated with Hirschsprung’s disease. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;19:1160-1161.
-
202.
Valentini D., Vittucci A.C., Grandin A., et al. Coinfection in acute gastroenteritis predicts a more severe clinical course in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;32:909-915.
-
203.
González-Del Vecchio M., Álvarez-Uria A., Marin M., et al. Clinical significance of Clostridium difficile in children less than 2 years old: a case-control study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35:281-285.
-
204.
Muto C.A., Blank M.K., Marsh J.W., et al. Control of an outbreak of infection with the hypervirulent Clostridium difficile BI strain in a university hospital using a comprehensive “bundle” approach. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1266-1273.
-
205.
Weiss K., Boisvert A., Chagnon M., et al. Multipronged intervention strategy to control an outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and its impact on the rates of CDI from 2002 to 2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30:156-162.
-
206.
Evans M.E., Kralovic S.M., Simbartl L.A., Jain R., Roselle G.A. Effect of a Clostridium difficile infection prevention initiative in Veterans Affairs acute care facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2016;37:720722.
-
207.
Waqar S., Nigh K., Sisler L., et al. Multidisciplinary performance improvement team for reducing health care-associated Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Infect Control. 2016;44:352-354.
-
208.
Koll B.S., Ruiz R.E., Calfee D.P., et al. Prevention of hospital-onset Clostridium difficile infection in the New York metropolitan region using a collaborative intervention model. J Healthc Qual. 2014;36:35-45.
-
209.
Teltsch D.Y., Hanley J., Loo V., et al. Infection acquisition following intensive care unit room privatization. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171:3238.
-
210.
Islam J., Cheek E., Navani V., et al. Influence of cohorting patients with Clostridium difficile infection on risk of symptomatic recurrence. J Hosp Infect. 2013;85:17-21.
-
211.
Cartmill T.D., Shrimpton S.B., Panigrahi H., et al. Nosocomial diarrhoea due to a single strain of Clostridium difficile: a prolonged outbreak in elderly patients. Age Ageing. 1992;21:245-249.
-
212.
Salgado C.D., Mauldin P.D., Fogle P.J., Bosso J.A. Analysis of an outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection controlled with enhanced infection control measures. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37:458-464.
-
213.
Landelle C., Verachten M., Legrand P., et al. Contamination of healthcare workers’ hands with Clostridium difficile spores after caring for patients with C. difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35:10-15.
-
214.
Johnson S., Gerding D.N., Olson M.M., et al. Prospective, controlled study of vinyl glove use to interrupt Clostridium difficile nosocomial transmission. Am J Med. 1990;88:137-140.
-
215.
Perry C., Marshall R., Jones E. Bacterial contamination of uniforms. J Hosp Infect. 2001;48:238-241.
-
216.
Puzniak L.A., Leet T., Mayfield J., Kollef M., Mundy L.M. To gown or not to gown: the effect on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:18-25.
-
217.
Srinivasan A., Song X., Ross T., et al. A prospective study to determine whether cover gowns in addition to gloves decrease nosocomial transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002;23:424-428.
-
218.
Sunkesula V.C., Kundrapu S., Jury L.A., et al. Potential for transmission of spores by patients awaiting laboratory testing to confirm suspected Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34:306-308.
-
219.
Dubberke E.R., Carling P., Carrico R., et al. Strategies to prevent Clostridium difficile infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35:628-645.
-
220.
Public Health England and Department of Health. Clostridium difficile infection: how to deal with the problem. 2008. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/340851/Clostridium_difficile_infection_how_to_deal_with_the_problem.pdf. Accessed 9 March 2016.
-
221.
Guerrero D.M., Nerandzic M.M., Jury L.A., et al. Acquisition of spores on gloved hands after contact with the skin of patients with Clostridium difficile infection and with environmental surfaces in their rooms. Am J Infect Control. 2012;40:556-558.
-
222.
Boyce J.M. Using alcohol for hand antisepsis: dispelling old myths. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2000;21:438-441.
-
223.
Pittet D., Mourouga P., Perneger T.V. Compliance with handwashing in a teaching hospital. Infection control program. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:126-130.
-
224.
Deyneko A., Cordeiro F., Berlin L., et al. Impact of sink location on hand hygiene compliance after care of patients with Clostridium difficile infection: a cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:203.
-
225.
Zellmer C., Blakney R., Van Hoof S., Safdar N. Impact of sink location on hand hygiene compliance for Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Infect Control. 2015;43:387-389.
-
226.
Clabots C.R., Gerding S.J., Olson M.M., Peterson .LR., Gerding D.N. Detection of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriage by an alcohol shock procedure. J Clin Microbiol. 1989;27:2386-2387.
-
227.
Gordin F.M., Schultz M.E., Huber R.A., Gill J.A. Reduction in nosocomial transmission of drug-resistant bacteria after introduction of an alcohol-based handrub. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26:650-653.
-
228.
Boyce J.M., Ligi C., Kohan C., Dumigan D., Havill N.L. Lack of association between the increased incidence of Clostridium difficileassociated disease and the increasing use of alcohol-based hand rubs. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2006;27:479-483.
-
229.
Kaier K., Hagist C., Frank U., Conrad A., Meyer E. Two time-series analyses of the impact of antibiotic consumption and alcohol-based hand disinfection on the incidences of nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection and Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30:346-353.
-
230.
Knight N., Strait T., Anthony N., et al. Clostridium difficile colitis: a retrospective study of incidence and severity before and after institution of an alcohol-based hand rub policy. Am J Infect Control. 2010;38:523-528.
-
231.
Vernaz N., Sax H., Pittet D., et al. Temporal effects of antibiotic use and hand rub consumption on the incidence of MRSA and Clostridium difficile. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62:601-607.
-
232.
Stone S.P., Fuller C., Savage J., et al. Evaluation of the national Cleanyourhands campaign to reduce Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia and Clostridium difficile infection in hospitals in England and Wales by improved hand hygiene: four year, prospective, ecological, interrupted time series study. BMJ. 2012;344:e3005.
-
233.
Oughton M.T., Loo V.G., Dendukuri N., Fenn S., Libman M.D. Hand hygiene with soap and water is superior to alcohol rub and antiseptic wipes for removal of Clostridium difficile. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30:939-944.
-
234.
Jabbar U., Leischner J., Kasper D., et al. Effectiveness of alcohol-based hand rubs for removal of Clostridium difficile spores from hands. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31:565-570.
-
235.
Edmonds S.L., Zapka C., Kasper D., et al. Effectiveness of hand hygiene for removal of Clostridium difficile spores from hands. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34:302-305.
-
236.
Kundrapu S., Sunkesula V., Sitzlar B.M., et al. More cleaning, less screening: evaluation of the time required for monitoring versus performing environmental cleaning. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35:202-204.
-
237.
Jury L.A., Guerrero D.M., Burant C.J., Cadnum J.L., Donskey C.J. Effectiveness of routine patient bathing to decrease the burden of spores on the skin of patients with Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32:181-184.
-
238.
Manian F.A., Meyer L., Jenne J. Clostridium difficile contamination of blood pressure cuffs: a call for a closer look at gloving practices in the era of universal precautions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1996;17:180-182.
-
239.
Brooks S., Khan A., Stoica D., et al. Reduction in vancomycinresistant Enterococcus and Clostridium difficile infections following change to tympanic thermometers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1998;19:333-336.
-
240.
Jernigan J.A., Siegman-Igra Y., Guerrant R.C., Farr B.M. A randomized crossover study of disposable thermometers for prevention of Clostridium difficile and other nosocomial infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1998;19:494-499.
-
241.
Vajravelu R.K., Guerrero D.M., Jury L.A., Donskey C.J. Evaluation of stethoscopes as vectors of Clostridium difficile and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012;33:9698.
-
242.
Kim K.H., Fekety R., Batts D.H., et al. Isolation of Clostridium difficile from the environment and contacts of patients with antibioticassociated colitis. J Infect Dis. 1981;143:42-50.
-
243.
Dumford D.M. 3rd, Nerandzic M.M., Eckstein B.C., Donskey C.J. What is on that keyboard? Detecting hidden environmental reservoirs of Clostridium difficile during an outbreak associated with North American pulsed-field gel electrophoresis type 1 strains. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37:15-19.
-
244.
Burns D.A., Heeg D., Cartman S.T., Minton N.P. Reconsidering the sporulation characteristics of hypervirulent Clostridium difficile BI/ NAP1/027. PLoS One. 2011;6:e24894.
-
245.
Dubberke E.R., Reske K.A., Noble-Wang J., et al. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile environmental contamination and strain variability in multiple health care facilities. Am J Infect Control. 2007;35:315318.
-
246.
Starr J.M., Campbell A., Renshaw E., Poxton I.R., Gibson G.J. Spatiotemporal stochastic modelling of Clostridium difficile. J Hosp Infect. 2009;71:49-56.
-
247.
Eyre D.W., Griffiths D., Vaughan A., et al. Asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonisation and onward transmission. PLoS One. 2013;8:e78445.
-
248.
Kaatz G.W., Gitlin S.D., Schaberg D.R., et al. Acquisition of Clostridium difficile from the hospital environment. Am J Epidemiol. 1988;127:1289-1294.
-
249.
McMullen K.M., Zack J., Coopersmith C.M., et al. Use of hypochlorite solution to decrease rates of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2007;28:205-207.
-
250.
Orenstein R., Aronhalt K.C., McManus J.E. Jr, Fedraw L.A. A targeted strategy to wipe out Clostridium difficile. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32:1137-1139.
-
251.
Sitzlar B., Deshpande A., Fertelli D., et al. An environmental disinfection odyssey: evaluation of sequential interventions to improve disinfection of Clostridium difficile isolation rooms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34:459-465.
-
252.
Boyce J.M., Havill N.L., Dumigan D.G., et al. Monitoring the effectiveness of hospital cleaning practices by use of an adenosine triphosphate bioluminescence assay. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30:678-684.
-
253.
Boyce J.M., Havill N.L., Otter J.A., et al. Impact of hydrogen peroxide vapor room decontamination on Clostridium difficile environmental contamination and transmission in a healthcare setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29:723-729.
-
254.
Barbut F., Menuet D., Verachten M., Girou E. Comparison of the efficacy of a hydrogen peroxide dry-mist disinfection system and sodium hypochlorite solution for eradication of Clostridium difficile spores. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2009;30:507-514.
-
255.
Vianna P.G., Dale C.R. Jr, Simmons S., Stibich M., Licitra C.M. Impact of pulsed xenon ultraviolet light on hospital-acquired infection rates in a community hospital. Am J Infect Control. 2016;44:299-303.
-
256.
Horn K., Otter J.A. Hydrogen peroxide vapor room disinfection and hand hygiene improvements reduce Clostridium difficile infection, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, and extended-spectrum β-lactamase. Am J Infect Contro 2015;43:1354-1356.
-
257.
Nagaraja A., Visintainer P., Haas J.P., et al. Clostridium difficile infections before and during use of ultraviolet disinfection. Am J Infect Control. 2015;43:940-945.
-
258.
Miller R., Simmons S., Dale C., Stachowiak J., Stibich M. Utilization and impact of a pulsed-xenon ultraviolet room disinfection system and multidisciplinary care team on Clostridium difficile in a long-term acute care facility. Am J Infect Control. 2015;43:1350-1353.
-
259.
Haas J.P., Menz J., Dusza S., Montecalvo M.A. Implementation and impact of ultraviolet environmental disinfection in an acute care setting. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42:586-590.
-
260.
Manian F.A., Griesnauer S., Bryant A. Implementation of hospitalwide enhanced terminal cleaning of targeted patient rooms and its impact on endemic Clostridium difficile infection rates. Am J Infect Control. 2013;41:537-541.
-
261.
Levin J., Riley L.S., Parrish C., English D., Ahn S. The effect of portable pulsed xenon ultraviolet light after terminal cleaning on hospitalassociated Clostridium difficile infection in a community hospital. Am J Infect Control. 2013;41:746-748.
-
262.
Kundrapu S., Sunkesula V., Jury L.A., Sitzlar B.M., Donskey C.J. Daily disinfection of high-touch surfaces in isolation rooms to reduce contamination of healthcare workers’ hands. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012;33:1039-1042.
-
263.
Hacek D.M., Ogle A.M., Fisher A., Robicsek A., Peterson L.R. Significant impact of terminal room cleaning with bleach on reducing nosocomial Clostridium difficile. Am J Infect Control. 2010;38:350353.
-
264.
Clabots C.R., Johnson S., Olson M.M., Peterson L.R., Gerding D.N. Acquisition of Clostridium difficile by hospitalized patients: evidence for colonized new admissions as a source of infection. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:561-567.
-
265.
Riggs M.M., Sethi A.K., Zabarsky T.F., et al. Asymptomatic carriers are a potential source for transmission of epidemic and nonepidemic Clostridium difficile strains among long-term care facility residents. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:992-998.
-
266.
Grigoras C.A., Zervou F.N., Zacharioudakis I.M., Siettos C.I., Mylonakis E. Isolation of C. difficile carriers alone and as part of a bundle approach for the prevention of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI): a mathematical model based on clinical study data. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0156577.
-
267.
Lanzas C., Dubberke E.R. Effectiveness of screening hospital admissions to detect asymptomatic carriers of Clostridium difficile: a modeling evaluation. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35:10431050.
-
268.
Longtin Y, Paquet-Bolduc B, Gilca R, et al. Effect of detecting and isolating Clostridium difficile carriers at hospital admission on the incidence of C. difficile infections: a quasi-experimental controlled study. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:796-804.
-
269.
Pear S.M., Williamson T.H., Bettin K.M., Gerding D.N., Galgiani J.N. Decrease in nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea by restricting clindamycin use. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:272-277.
-
270.
McNulty C., Logan M., Donald I.P., et al. Successful control of Clostridium difficile infection in an elderly care unit through use of a restrictive antibiotic policy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997;40:707711.
-
271.
Climo M.W., Israel D.S., Wong E.S., et al. Hospital-wide restriction of clindamycin: effect on the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and cost. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:989-995.
-
272.
Khan R., Cheesbrough J. Impact of changes in antibiotic policy on Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea (CDAD) over a five-year period in a district general hospital. J Hosp Infect. 2003;54:104-108.
-
273.
Carling P., Fung T., Killion A., Terrin N., Barza M. Favorable impact of a multidisci-plinary antibiotic management program conducted during 7 years. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2003;24:699-706.
-
274.
Wilcox M.H., Freeman J., Fawley W., et al. Long-term surveillance of cefotaxime and piperacillin-tazobactam prescribing and incidence of Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;54:168-172.
-
275.
Gaynes R., Rimland D., Killum E., et al. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a long-term care facility: association with gatifloxacin use. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:640-645.
-
276.
Valiquette L., Cossette B., Garant M.P., Diab H., Pépin J. Impact of a reduction in the use of high-risk antibiotics on the course of an epidemic of Clostridium difficile-associated disease caused by the hypervirulent NAP1/027 strain. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(Suppl 2):S112-121.
-
277.
Fowler S., Webber A., Cooper B.S., et al. Successful use of feedback to improve antibiotic prescribing and reduce Clostridium difficile infection: a controlled interrupted time series. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007;59:990-995.
-
278.
Talpaert M.J., Gopal Rao G., Cooper B.S., Wade P. Impact of guidelines and enhanced antibiotic stewardship on reducing broadspectrum antibiotic usage and its effect on incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:2168-2174.
-
279.
Elligsen M., Walker S.A., Pinto R., et al. Audit and feedback to reduce broad-spectrum antibiotic use among intensive care unit patients: a controlled interrupted time series analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012;33:354-361.
-
280.
Dancer S.J., Kirkpatrick P., Corcoran D.S., et al. Approaching zero: temporal effects of a restrictive antibiotic policy on hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile, extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing coliforms and meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013;41:137-142.
-
281.
Aldeyab M.A., Devine M.J., Flanagan P., et al. Multihospital outbreak of Clostridium difficile ribotype 027 infection: epidemiology and analysis of control measures. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32:210-219.
-
282.
Aldeyab M.A., Kearney M.P., Scott M.G., et al. An evaluation of the impact of antibiotic stewardship on reducing the use of highrisk antibiotics and its effect on the incidence of Clostridium difficile infection in hospital settings. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:29882996.
-
283.
Jump R.L., Olds D.M., Seifi N., et al. Effective antimicrobial stewardship in a long-term care facility through an infectious disease consultation service: keeping a LID on antibiotic use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012;33:1185-1192.
-
284.
Chang V.T., Nelson K. The role of physical proximity in nosocomial diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:717-722.
-
285.
Stevens V., Dumyati G., Fine L.S., Fisher S.G., van Wijngaarden E. Cumulative antibiotic exposures over time and the risk of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:42-48.
-
286.
Barlam T.F., Cosgrove S.E., Abbo L.M., et al. Executive summary: implementing an antibiotic stewardship program: guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:1197-1202.
-
287.
Kwok C.S., Arthur A.K., Anibueze C.I., et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection with acid suppressing drugs and antibiotics: metaanalysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:1011-1019.
-
288.
Tleyjeh I., Bin Abdulhak A., Riaz M., et al. Association between acidsuppression therapy and Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18:113.
-
289.
Garey K.W., Sethi S., Yadav Y., DuPont H.L. Meta-analysis to assess risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 2008;70:298-304.
-
290.
Janarthanan S., Ditah I., Adler D.G., Ehrinpreis M.N. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and proton pump inhibitor therapy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:1001-1010.
-
291.
Freedberg D.E., Salmasian H., Friedman C., Abrams J.A. Proton pump inhibitors and risk for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection among inpatients. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108:1794-1801.
-
292.
Rodríguez-Pardo D., Almirante B., Bartolomé R.M., et al; Barcelona Clostridium difficile Study Group. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection and risk factors for unfavorable clinical outcomes: results of a hospital-based study in Barcelona, Spain. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51:1465-1473.
-
293.
Lin H.J., Hung Y.P., Liu H.C., et al. Risk factors for Clostridium difficileassociated diarrhea among hospitalized adults with fecal toxigenic C. difficile colonization. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2015;48:183189.
-
294.
Khanna S., Aronson S.L., Kammer P.P., Baddour L.M., Pardi D.S. Gastric acid suppression and outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2012;87:636-642.
-
295.
Pattani R., Palda V.A., Hwang S.W., Shah P.S. Probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridium difficile infection among hospitalized patients: systematic review and metaanalysis. Open Med. 2013;7:e56-67.
-
296.
Goldenberg J.Z., Ma S.S., Saxton J.D., et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;5:CD006095.
-
297.
Johnson S., Maziade P.J., McFarland L.V., et al. Is primary prevention of Clostridium difficile infection possible with specific probiotics? Int J Infect Dis. 2012;16:e786-792.
-
298.
Gao X.W., Mubasher M., Fang C.Y., Reifer C., Miller L.E. Dose-response efficacy of a proprietary probiotic formula of Lactobacillus acidophilus CL1285 and Lactobacillus casei LBC80R for antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea prophylaxis in adult patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105:1636-1641.
-
299.
Kotowska M., Albrecht P., Szajewska H. Saccharomyces boulardii in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea in children: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;21:583-590.
-
300.
Enache-Angoulvant A., Hennequin C. Invasive Saccharomyces infection: a comprehensive review. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:15591568.
-
301.
Hennequin C., Kauffmann-Lacroix C., Jobert A., et al. Possible role of catheters in Saccharomyces boulardii fungemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000;19:16-20.
-
302.
Gouriet F., Million M., Henri M., Fournier P.E., Raoult D. Lactobacillus rhamnosus bacteremia: an emerging clinical entity. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;31:2469-2480.
-
303.
Mullane K.M., Miller M.A., Weiss K., et al. Efficacy of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin as therapy for Clostridium difficile infection in individuals taking concomitant antibiotics for other concurrent infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:440-447.
-
304.
Al-Nassir W.N., Sethi A.K., Li Y., et al. Both oral metronidazole and oral vancomycin promote persistent overgrowth of vancomycinresistant enterococci during treatment of Clostridium difficileassociated disease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:24032406.
-
305.
Koo H.L., Koo D.C., Musher D.M., DuPont H.L. Antimotility agents for the treatment of Clostridium difficile diarrhea and colitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:598-605.
-
306.
Wilcox M.H., Howe R. Diarrhoea caused by Clostridium difficile: response time for treatment with metronidazole and vancomycin. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1995;36:673-679.
-
307.
Wenisch C., Parschalk B., Hasenhündl M., Hirschl A.M., Graninger W. Comparison of vancomycin, teicoplanin, metronidazole, and fusidic acid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:813-818.
-
308.
Siegfried J., Dubrovskaya Y., Flagiello T., et al. Initial therapy for mild to moderate Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Dis Clin Pract. 2016;24:210-216.
-
309.
Musher D.M., Aslam S., Logan N., et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1586-1590.
-
310.
Pepin J., Alary M.E., Valiquette L., et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1591-1597.
-
311.
Cohen S.H., Gerding D.N., Johnson S., et al; Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31:431-455.
-
312.
Yamamoto T., Abe K., Anjiki H., Ishii T., Kuyama Y. Metronidazoleinduced neurotoxicity developed in liver cirrhosis. J Clin Med Res. 2012;4:295-298.
-
313.
Knorr J.P., Javed I., Sahni N., Cankurtaran C.Z., Ortiz J.A. Metronidazole-induced encephalopathy in a patient with end-stage liver disease. Case Reports Hepatol. 2012;2012:209258.
-
314.
Jardin C.G., Palmer H.R., Shah D.N., et al. Assessment of treatment patterns and patient outcomes before vs after implementation of a severity-based Clostridium difficile infection treatment policy. J Hosp Infect. 2013;85:28-32.
-
315.
Lungulescu O.A., Cao W., Gatskevich E., Tlhabano L., Stratidis J.G. CSI: a severity index for Clostridium difficile infection at the time of admission. J Hosp Infect. 2011;79:151-154.
-
316.
Bauer M.P., Hensgens M.P., Miller M.A., et al. Renal failure and leukocytosis are predictors of a complicated course of Clostridium difficile infection if measured on day of diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(Suppl 2):S149-153.
-
317.
Miller M.A., Louie T., Mullane K., et al. Derivation and validation of a simple clinical bedside score (ATLAS) for Clostridium difficile infection which predicts response to therapy. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13:148.
-
318.
Louie T.J., Miller M.A., Mullane K.M., et al; OPT-80-003 Clinical Study Group. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:422-431.
-
319.
Shah D.N., Bhatt N.S., Welch J.K., Koo H.L., Garey K.W. Defining acute renal dysfunction as a criterion for the severity of Clostridium difficile infection in patients with community-onset vs hospital-onset infection. J Hosp Infect. 2013;83:294-299.
-
320.
Wang M.S., Evans C.T., Rodriguez T., Gerding D.N., Johnson S. Clostridium difficile infection and limitations of markers for severity in patients with hematologic malignancy. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34:127-132.
-
321.
Cornely O.A., Crook D.W., Esposito R., et al; OPT-80-004 Clinical Study Group. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for infection with Clostridium difficile in Europe, Canada, and the USA: a doubleblind, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12:281-289.
-
322.
Crook D.W., Walker A.S., Kean Y., et al; Study 3/4 Teams. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(Suppl 2):S93-103.
-
323.
Nerandzic M.M., Mullane K., Miller M.A., Babakhani F., Donskey CJ. Reduced acquisition and overgrowth of vancomycin-resistant enterococci and Candida species in patients treated with fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;(55 Suppl 2):S121-126.
-
324.
O’Connor J.R., Galang M.A., Sambol S.P., et al. Rifampin and rifaximin resistance in clinical isolates of Clostridium difficile. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:2813-2817.
-
325.
Apisarnthanarak A., Razavi B., Mundy L.M. Adjunctive intracolonic vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile colitis: case series and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:690-696.
-
326.
Malamood M., Nellis E., Ehrlich A.C., Friedenberg F.K. Vancomycin enemas as adjunctive therapy for Clostridium difficile infection. J Clin Med Res. 2015;7:422-427.
-
327.
Pettit N.N., DePestel D.D., Fohl A.L., Eyler R., Carver P.L. Risk factors for systemic vancomycin exposure following administration of oral vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Pharmacotherapy. 2015;35:119-126.
-
328.
Rokas K.E., Johnson J.W., Beardsley J.R., et al. The Addition of intravenous metronidazole to oral vancomycin is associated with improved mortality in critically ill patients with Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:934-941.
-
329.
McPherson S., Rees C.J., Ellis R., Soo S., Panter S.J. Intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of severe, refractory, and recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Dis Colon Rectum. 2006;49:640645.
-
330.
Leung D.Y., Kelly C.P., Boguniewicz M., et al. Treatment with intravenously administered gamma globulin of chronic relapsing colitis induced by Clostridium difficile toxin. J Pediatr. 1991;18:633-637.
-
331.
Salcedo J., Keates S., Pothoulakis C., et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for severe Clostridium difficile colitis. Gut. 1997;41:366-370.
-
332.
Wilcox M.H. Descriptive study of intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2004;53:882-884.
-
333.
Larson K.C., Belliveau P.P., Spooner L.M. Tigecycline for the treatment of severe Clostridium difficile infection. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45:1005-1010.
-
334.
Herpers B.L., Vlaminckx B., Burkhardt O., et al. Intravenous tigecycline as adjunctive or alternative therapy for severe refractory Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1732-1735.
-
335.
Lamontagne F., Labbé A.C., Haeck O., et al. Impact of emergency colectomy on survival of patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain. Ann Surg. 2007;245:267-272.
-
336.
Longo W.E., Mazuski J.E., Virgo K.S., et al. Outcome after colectomy for Clostridium difficile colitis. Dis Colon Rectum. 2004;47:16201666.
-
337.
Neal M.D., Alverdy J.C., Hall D.E., Simmons R.L., Zuckerbraun B.S. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease. Ann Surg. 2011;254:423427; discussion 427-429.
-
338.
Barbut F., Richard A., Hamadi K., et al. Epidemiology of recurrences or reinfections of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:2386-2388.
-
339.
Johnson S., Adelmann A., Clabots C.R., Peterson L.R., Gerding D.N. Recurrences of Clostridium difficile diarrhea not caused by the original infecting organism. J Infect Dis. 1989;159:340-343.
-
340.
Nair S., Yadav D., Corpuz M., Pitchumoni C.S. Clostridium difficile colitis: factors influencing treatment failure and relapse – a prospective evaluation. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93:1873-1876.
-
341.
Linsky A., Gupta K., Lawler .EV., Fonda J.R., Hermos J.A. Proton pump inhibitors and risk for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:772-778.
-
342.
Kim Y.G., Graham D.Y., Jang B.I. Proton pump inhibitor use and recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated disease: a casecontrol analysis matched by propensity score. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;46:397-400.
-
343.
Cornely O.A., Miller M.A., Louie T.J., Crook D.W., Gorbach S.L. Treatment of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: fidaxomicin versus vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(Suppl 2):S154-161.
-
344.
Spiceland C.M., Khanna S., Pardi D.S. Outcomes with fidaxomicin therapy in Clostridium difficile infection. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2016. doi:10.1097/MCG.0000000000000769.
-
345.
Kapoor K., Chandra M., Nag D., et al. Evaluation of metronidazole toxicity: a prospective study. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1999;19:83-88.
-
346.
Kuriyama A., Jackson J.L., Doi A., Kamiya T. Metronidazoleinduced central nervous system toxicity: a systematic review. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2011;34:241-247.
-
347.
McFarland L.V., Elmer G.W., Surawicz C.M. Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97:1769-1775.
-
348.
Lagrotteria D., Holmes S., Smieja M., Smaill F., Lee C. Prospective, randomized inpatient study of oral metronidazole versus oral metronidazole and rifampin for treatment of primary episode of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:547-552.
-
349.
Surawicz C.M., McFarland L.V., Greenberg R.N., et al. The search for a better treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: use of high-dose vancomycin combined with Saccharomyces boulardii. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:1012-1017.
-
350.
McFarland L.V., Surawicz C.M., Greenberg R.N., et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of Saccharomyces boulardii in combination with standard antibiotics for Clostridium difficile disease. JAMA. 1994;271:1913-1918.
-
351.
Wullt M., Hagslätt M.L., Odenholt I. Lactobacillus plantarum 299v for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Scand J Infect Dis. 2003;35:365-367.
-
352.
Kaki R., Brooks A., Main C., Jayaratne P., Mertz D. Does extending Clostridium difficile treatment in patients who are receiving concomitant antibiotics reduce the rate of relapse? Internet J Infect Dis. 2016;15:1-5.
-
353.
Carignan A., Poulin S., Martin P., et al. Efficacy of secondary prophylaxis with vancomycin for preventing recurrent Clostridium difficile infections. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016;111:1834-1840.
-
354.
Van Hise N.W., Bryant A.M., Hennessey E.K., et al. Efficacy of oral vancomycin in preventing recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in patients treated with systemic antimicrobial agents. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:651-653.
-
355.
Aas J., Gessert C.E., Bakken J.S. Recurrent Clostridium difficile colitis: case series involving 18 patients treated with donor stool administered via a nasogastric tube. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:580-585.
-
356.
Bakken J.S. Fecal bacteriotherapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Anaerobe. 2009;15:285-289.
-
357.
Gough E., Shaikh H., Manges A.R. Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:994-1002.
-
358.
Guo B., Harstall C., Louie T., Veldhuyzen van Zanten S., Dieleman L.A. Systematic review: faecal transplantation for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012;35:865-875.
-
359.
MacConnachie A.A., Fox R., Kennedy D.R., Seaton R.A. Faecal transplant for recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: a UK case series. QJM. 2009;102:781-784.
-
360.
Brandt L.J., Aroniadis O.C., Mellow M., et al. Long-term follow-up of colonoscopic fecal microbiota transplant for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:1079-1087.
-
361.
Hamilton M.J., Weingarden A.R., Sadowsky M.J., Khoruts A. Standardized frozen preparation for transplantation of fecal microbiota for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:761-767.
-
362.
Jorup-Rönström C., Håkanson A., Sandell S., et al. Fecal transplant against relapsing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in 32 patients. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2012;47:548-552.
-
363.
Mattila E., Uusitalo-Seppälä R., Wuorela M., et al. Fecal transplantation, through colonoscopy, is effective therapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Gastroenterology. 2012;142:490-496.
-
364.
van Nood E., Vrieze A., Nieuwdorp M., et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:407-415.
-
365.
Cammarota G., Masucci L., Ianiro G., et al. Randomised clinical trial: faecal microbiota transplantation by colonoscopy vs. vancomycin for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;41:835-843.
-
366.
Youngster I., Sauk J., Pindar C., et al. Fecal microbiota transplant for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection using a frozen inoculum from unrelated donors: a randomized, open-label, controlled pilot study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1515-1522.
-
367.
Lee C.H., Steiner T., Petrof E.O., et al. Frozen vs fresh fecal microbiota transplantation and clinical resolution of diarrhea in patients with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016;315:142-149.
-
368.
Kelly C.R., Khoruts A., Staley C., et al. Effect of fecal microbiota transplantation on recurrence in multiply recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165:609-616.
-
369.
Bakken J.S., Borody T., Brandt L.J., et al; Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Workgroup. Treating Clostridium difficile infection with fecal microbiota transplantation. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011;9:1044-1049.
-
370.
Rubin T.A., Gessert C.E., Aas J., Bakken J.S. Fecal microbiome transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: report on a case series. Anaerobe. 2013;19:22-26.
-
371.
Wang S., Xu M., Wang W., et al. Systematic review: adverse events of fecal Microbiota transplantation. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0161174.
-
372.
Kelly C.R., Ihunnah C., Fischer M., et al. Fecal microbiota transplant for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in immunocompromised patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109:1065-1071.
-
373.
Schwartz M., Gluck M., Koon S. Norovirus gastroenteritis after fecal microbiota transplantation for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection despite asymptomatic donors and lack of sick contacts. Am J Gastroenterol. 2013;108:1367.
-
374.
Weingarden A.R., Hamilton M.J., Sadowsky M.J., Khoruts A. Resolution of severe Clostridium difficile infection following sequential fecal microbiota transplantation. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2013;47:735737.
-
375.
Fischer M., Sipe B.W., Rogers N.A., et al. Faecal microbiota transplantation plus selected use of vancomycin for severe-complicated Clostridium difficile infection: description of a protocol with high success rate. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;42:470-476.
-
376.
Khoruts A., Rank K.M., Newman K.M., et al. Inflammatory bowel disease affects the outcome of fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;14:1433-1438.
-
377.
De Leon L.M., Watson J.B., Kelly C.R. Transient flare of ulcerative colitis after fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013;11:1036-1038.
-
378.
Fischer M., Kao D., Kelly C., et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation is safe and efficacious for recurrent or refractory Clostridium difficile infection in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2016;22:2402-2409.
-
379.
Sammons J.S., Gerber J.S., Tamma P.D., et al. Diagnosis and management of Clostridium difficile infection by pediatric infectious diseases physicians. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2014;3:43-48.
-
380.
Schwenk H.T., Graham D.A., Sharma T.S., Sandora T.J. Vancomycin use for pediatric Clostridium difficile infection is increasing and associated with specific patient characteristics. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:4307-4313.
-
381.
Gerding D.N. Is there a relationship between vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infection and Clostridium difficile infection? Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25(Suppl 2):S206-210.
-
382.
Muniyappa P., Gulati R., Mohr F., Hupertz V. Use and safety of rifaximin in children with inflammatory bowel disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:400-404.
-
383.
Scarpellini E., Giorgio V., Gabrielli M., et al. Rifaximin treatment for small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in children with irritable bowel syndrome. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol. Sci 2013;17:1314-1320.
-
384.
Russell G., Kaplan J., Ferraro M., Michelow I.C. Fecal bacteriotherapy for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection in a child: a proposed treatment protocol. Pediatrics. 2010;126:e239-242.
-
385.
Walia R., Garg S., Song Y., et al. Efficacy of fecal microbiota transplantation in 2 children with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection and its impact on their growth and gut microbiome. J Ped Gastroenterol Nutr. 2014;59:565-570.